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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:21:10 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:21:30 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
992
March, 992 In a treaty negotiated by Pietro Orseole II and Byzantine Emperor Basil II, Venetian goods are exempted from almost all customs duties at Abydos (albeit not foreign goods carried on Venetian ships). Venetian merchants in Constantinople are placed directly under the Grand Logotethe (Minister of Finance) and not any of his minions. In return, Venice is to place its transport fleet at the disposal of the imperial army.
992 Death of Princess-dowager Aloara of Capua. Her young son, Landenulf (son of Pandulf II) rules on. But with his mother out of the way, the Capuan nobles murder Landenulf, the young prince of Capua. Landenulf's brother, Count Laidulf of Teano, lays claim as Prince Laidulf ("Teano") of Capua.
992 Robert Capet, son of Hugh Capet of France repudiates Suzanna, widow of Arnulf II of Flanders and daughter of Berengar II of Ivrea.
992 Death of Bishop Rozone of Asti. Ascension of Bishop Peter of Asti.
993
993 Death of King Conrad of Burgundy. He is succeeded by his son as King Rudolph III ('the Sluggard') of Burgundy.
994
Sicilian Arabs sack and raze Matera, then proceed to sack the monastery of Monte Cassino.
c.994 Crescenzi II Coup With Empress Theophano out of sight, Crescentius II of Nomentana seizes control of Rome and orders the arrest of Pope John XV. The Pope escapes and takes refuge with Hugh the Great of Tuscany-Spoleto. Hugh dispatches an appeal to Germany for assistance.
994 Death of prince John II Lambert of Salerno. His son ascends as Prince Guaimar III of Salerno.
994 Council of Anse, at the urging of Abbot Odilo of Cluny, declares a 'Peace of God' over all the territorial domains of the Abbey of Cluny, surrounding lands and associated priories. In short, 'no fighting on abbey property'. This turns abbeys into 'sanctuaries' of peace. And also greatly bolsters the numbers of monks, as many people (particularly knights fleeing feuds or the revenge of rivals) rush there for cover. Also greatly expands the Cluniac system as monasteries in troubled lands now have a strong incentive to recast themselves as a priory of Cluny and escape the bloodshed.
995
Death of Henry II the Quarrelsome of Bavaria-Carinthia. His son ascends as Duke Henry IV ("the Saint") of Bavaria. Otto III's cousin, the former Carinthian duke Otto of Worms, is restored in Carinthia.
995 Fifteen-year-old German king Otto III comes of age and dismisses the regency of his grandmother, Adelaide of Burgundy. His first matter of business is the rescue of the Roman Pope John XV from Crescentius II of Nomentana. And an imperial coronation, of course.
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:21:47 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:22:04 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size] 996February, 996 Otto III's first expedition to Italy From Regensburg, Otto III proceeds over the Brenner pass. News of Otto II's arrival prompt the Roman ruler, Crenscentius II, to invite Pope John XV (in exile in Tuscany) back to Rome. March, 996 Otto III arrives in Verona, where he receives ambassadors from Doge Pietro Orseole II of Venice. The 983 treaty is renewed, with the novelty that Otto III recognizes that Venetians anywhere in the empire are subject to the Doge's jurisdiction. He also assures the restoration of mainland lands owned by Venetians that had lately fallen into the hands of the bishops of Treviso, Ceneda and Belluno. Otto III stands as godfather to confirmation of the Doge's son (named Otto, in his honor). Verona riots A conflict between the imperial guard and the burghers of Verona is misinterpreted by the German army outside the city, which rush into the city. To clear their way, they proceed to burn down several homes. The angered Veronese population falls upon them and bloody clashes ensue in the streets. Peace is eventually restored. April, 996 Death of Pope John XV, shortly after having been allowed back by Crescentius II. The Roman nobility immediately dispatches an embassy to Otto III to request imperial designation of a successor. Otto III receives news of the Pope's death while in Pavia, and hurries to Ravenna to meet the Roman embassy. May, 996 Meeting with the Roman embassy at Ravenna, Emperor Otto III decides to appoint his Salian cousin, Bruno of Carinthia (son of Otto of Worms, Duke of Carinthia), who duly ascends as Pope Gregory. He is the first German pope. Gregory V, accompanied by Archbishop Willigus of Mainz and Hildebold of Worms, proceeds to Rome.  - Bruno of Carinthia, Pope Gregory V While at Ravenna, in addition to the privileges already granted the previous month, Otto III grants Venice permission to set up a port, warehouses and trading stations on the Sile and Piave rivers and at S. Michele del Quarto. May 21, 996 Otto III arrives in Rome and is crowned as Emperor Otto III by his handpicked German Pope Gregory V.  - Otto III, King of Germany and Lombardia, Emperor. However, he refuses to re-issue Otto I's 967 "restoration" of the Exarchate of Ravenna to the Papal States (which had gone unenforced) and insists on the continued imperial administration of the three counties of Ravenna and Comacchio and Ferrara (under the house of Canossa). Otto puts off further papal demands by placing eight counties in the Pentapoli under the protection of marquises of Spoleto-Camerino, for which he deducts the domain from Hugh the Great and invests in a new Marquis Conrad of Spoleto-Camerino (possibly relation to Ivrea?) May, 996 After the coronation festivities, Otto III assembles the notables of Rome and condemns Crescentius II and his confederates to perpetual exile for their role during the papacy of John XV.. But, upon the intervention of Pope Gregory V, they are forgiven. Summer, 996 Gerbert of Aurillac, Bishop of Rheims, arrives in Rome, hoping to persuade Otto III and Pope Gregory V to accept the judgment of St. Basle de Vergy. To no avail. Gregory V dispatches the bishop's distaff to the deposed Arnulf of Rheims and orders the convocation of a synod to decide the issue. August, 996 Otto III returns to Germany, accompanied by the Archbishop Adalbert of Prague. Adalbert, who would proceed to find martyrdom in Prussia, fills the young monarch's head with ideas of monastic mysticism. October, 996 Death of Hugh I Capet, at the age of fifty-four. His son ascends as King Robert II ("the Pious") of France. Despite still not having a formal annulment of his earlier marriage to Susanna of Ivrea, Robert II marries his cousin, Bertha of Burgundy, widow of Otto-William of Chartres. 997Ascendancy of King Stephen I ("Arpad", "the Saint") of the Magyars. February, 997 The conflict over Caresana deepens. Marquis Arduin of Ivrea takes Vercelli by assault, killing Bishop Peter of Vercelli in the process. Spring, 997 Crescenzi Rebellion. No sooner has Otto III left Italy that Crescentius II de Nomentana takes control of the city again and drives the German Pope Gregory V out of Rome (he proceeds to Pavia). In his stead, Crescentius ensures the election of the Calabrian Greek John Philagathos, Bishop of Piacenza and abbot of Nonantola (who had been Theophano's chaplain and Otto III's former tutor and more recently ambassador to Constantinople), as anti- Pope John XVI. It is a perhaps a belated attempt at anchoring Rome back into the orbit of the Byzantine emperor. 997 First Venetian expedition against Narentine pirates. August, 997 Death of Duke Conrad I ("Wetterau") of Swabia. His eldest son ascends as Duke Hermann II of Swabia. Fall, 997 Synod of Pavia by the exiled Pope Gregory V. The decision of St. Basle de Vergy is nullified, Arnulf of Rheims confirmed as bishop and Gerbert of Aurillac deposed. Pope Gregory V threatens the French clergy with excommunication if they fail to recognize this. The Frankish bishops quietly fall in line. Gerbert of Aurillac, deprived of his late protector, Hugh Capet, proceeds to Germany to seek the support of Otto III. Also at the council, Pope Gregory V excommunicates Crescentius II and threatens to excommunicate anyone who recognizes the anti-Pope John XVI. Winter, 997 Responding to Pope Gregory V's appeal, Emperor Otto III returns to Italy, leaving the government of Germany in the hands of his aunt, Mathilda of Quedlinburg. He is accompanied by Gerbert of Aurillac, ex-Bishop of Rheims, who, by his expositions of the corrupt situation in Rome, has worked into the young emperor's confidence and filled his head with notions about the restoration of the Roman Empire. 998998 - Yusuf al-Kalbi becomes sick and paralyzed. He appoints his son Ja'far al-Kalbi as new Emir of Sicily. More militarily-minded (he will lead several expeditions on the mainland) and less of a statemen than his father, ethnic and religious divisions in Sicily are exarcebated under his neglect. February, 998 Speeding through Pavia and Ravenna, Otto III arrives in Rome. Rome submits with barely a fight. Crescentius II and his confederates barricade themselves in Castel Sant' Angelo. Otto III's former tutor Philagathos (anti-Pope John XVI), who had tried to flee into the Campania, is caught and brought back by German troops -- horribly mutilated, his ears, nose and tongue cut off and his eyes carved out.  - Castel Sant'Angelo (formerly Hadrian's mausoleum) in Rome, stronghold of the Crescenzi. March, 998 Synod of Lateran Despite the pleas for mercy by the venerable cleric St. Nilus of Rossano, Otto III has the mutilated and penitent Pope John XVI (Otto's former tutor Philagathos) deposed and paraded naked & backwards on a donkey through Rome before jeering crowds, before being thrown into a dungeon for the remainder of his life. Otto III and his German Pope Gregory V are not to be toyed with. St. Nilus of Rossano meets Otto III (fresco by Grottaferrata). March, 998 Death of Landolf da Carcano, the controversial Archbishop of Milan. He is succeeded by Archbishop Arnulf II 'da Arsago' of Milan. A son of a high Milanese clerical family, the Lords of Arsago Seprio. Related through his mother to a previous great archbishop of Milan (Arnulf I) and through his father to the bishops John of Ravenna, Sigfried of Piacenza and John of Lucca. His own brother would be invested as Bishop of Brescia in 1003. April, 998 After stiff resistance, Sant' Angelo falls to the Germans. Crescentius II de Nomentona is executed, beheaded and his remains, like those of his confederates, dragged to Monte Mario for public exposure. That same month, Pope Gregory V deposes Archbishop John XIII of Ravenna. The Frank Gerbert of Aurillac, former bishop of Rheims, is invested as Archbishop Gerbert ("Aurillac") of Ravenna. With this, the two most important sees in Italy -- Rome and Ravenna -- are now invested in ultramontanes. The Pope grants to the Archbishop Gerbert three counties -- Bobbio, Forli and Forlimpopoli. Benedict II of Sabina, a cousin of Crescentius II, is also deposed and his Crescenzi wife Stefania given to the German soldiery to gang-rape. The Pope lays claim on the Sabine region. Summer, 998 After ensuring Rome is back under imperial control, Otto III retires to Tuscany and then onto Pavia. September, 998 Assembly of Pavia presided by Otto III. It issues a strongly-worded condemnation of the feudalization of church property as a way for bishops to raise money and annuls all concessions made in this manner.. Interestingly, in his documents, Otto III refers not to the Lombard Kingdom of Italy, but the Kingdom of Italy as a whole (Byz areas included). Fall, 998 Otto III returns to Rome and begins the construction of the Aventine palace, a magnificent edifice near Adalbert of Prague's old monastery of SS. Bonifacio and Alessio, near St. Peter's. In the Aventine palace, Otto III preside over what is effectively an eccentric court in Byzantine (rather than German) fashion, encouraged by his new soulmate, the cosmopolitan Gerbert of Aurillac, Archbishop of Ravenna. He adopts the Byzantine habit of eating in magnificent isolation, rather than at table with his knights. Besides taking the pompous title of "Emperor of Emperors" for himself, Otto III "renames" much of his household with Byzantine titles -- magister militiae, "naval prefect" (granted, incidentally, to Count Gregory I of Tusculum, lord of Anzio and head of the Tusculan branch of the House of Theophylact), "master of the imperial palace" (granted to Gregory's son, Alberic III of Rome), protosphatarius ("sword bearer"), logotheta ("chancellor"), etc.. Otto III invests an imperial logotheta as Bishop Leo of Vercelli. With the support of Bishop Varmond of Ivrea, Leo of Vercelli presses accusations against Marquis Arduin of Ivrea for the homicide of his predecessor, Peter of Vercelli, in the previous year's assault on Vercelli. November, 998 Council of Rome convened by Otto III and Pope Gregory V. A ffairs of the Frankish church are dealt with, they turn their attention to the marital business of Robert II the Pious of France. The council declares Robert's second marriage to Bertha bigamous and orders Robert II to return to his first wife, Susanna of Ivrea (widow of Arnulf II of Flanders). Robert II is excommunicated. Winter, 998-9 Otto III abandons Rome, dons the habit of a monk, goes on an eccentric pilgrimage through middle Italy. Stopping by Monte Cassino, and then onto the sanctuary of St. Michael in Gargano (Capitanata), Otto III arrives in Benevento and demands the body of St. Bartholomew from the Beneventine prince Pandulf III to install in a new shrine on the Tiber. Having been promised the remains, Otto III proceeds to Gaeta to another shrine.
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:22:21 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:22:49 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size] 999Febraury, 999 Death of abbess Mathilda of Quedlinburg, Otto III's aunt and regent in Germany. February, 999 Death of German Pope Gregory V, possibly at the hand of Roman agents. Hearing the news, Otto III abandons his eccentric pilgrimage and hurries back to Rome. April, 999 Emperor Otto III ensures the election of the Frankish Archbishop Gerbert of Aurillac of Ravenna (formerly anti-Bishop of Rheims) as Pope Silvester II, the first French pope.  - Gerbert d'Aurillac, Pope Sylvester II Leo of Vercelli is invested as Archbishop Leo II ("Vercelli") of Ravenna. Emperor Otto III grants to the See of Ravenna temporal power over the lands of Ravenna, Ferrara and the lands taken from the condemned count Lambert. May, 999 Annexation of Ivrea For his murder of Peter of Vercelli, Marquis Arduin of Ivrea is excommunicated, deposed and his property confiscated and granted to Bishops Varmondo of Ivrea and Leo of Vercelli (now also of Ravenna).  - Varmondo Arborio, Bishop of Ivrea In his attempts to dislodge the still-powerful Crescenzi, Pope Sylvester II grants Terracina (formerly held by them) to Count Daifer of Traetto, in return for military service -- the first explicit case of a feudal grant by a pope. His continued conflict with the Crescenzi lord Benedict II of Sabina come to naught, and so Sylvester II applies to Otto III for an imperial missi to resolve the issue. At length, with the torture and killing of Benedict II's son, he relents and restores the rectorate of Sabina to Rome. 999 Ademar's Campaign. Conrad of Spoleto dies/deposed? (possibly related to Ivrea). Emperor Otto III appoints a pro-German Lombard lord as Duke Ademar of Spoleto-Camerino (related to Hugh the Great of Tuscany, the previous holder?) and charges him with putting order in the south. Ademar proceeds to Naples, where he takes the Duke (John IV?) of Naples prisoner, and then up to Capua, where he arrests Count Laidulf and numerous others, dispatches them to Germany and declares himself Prince Ademar of Capua, in the emperor's name. December, 999 Death of Adelaide of Burgundy, grandmother of Otto III, widow of Lothair II of Italy and Otto I of Germany. With the death of Adelaide and Mathilda, who had been so active as regents, Otto III's presence in Germany is required. After a two-year sojourn in Italy, Emperor Otto III returns to Germany. 999 - Catapanate of Italy - The strategos Gregory Tarchaneiotes of Bari is raised to catapan ('Patricius') of Italy, thus supreme head over both the themes of Calabria and Apulia and theoretical superior of the maritime duchies of Naples, Amalfi and Gaeta. 1000March, 1000 In yet another of his bizzarre religious acts, Otto III has the crypt of Charlemagne in Aachen opened. By legend, the body of the Carolingian monarch is found intact and seated on a throne in full imperial splendor. Otto III takes a tooth, his cross and a few other bits as holy relics, which he will subsequently donate to a church in Rome, thereby launching a religious cult of Charlemagne.  - Otto III opening the tomb of Charlemagne. Spring, 1000 With Otto gone, the deposed Marquis Arduin of Ivrea returns, assembles his forces and recovers Ivrea from the Bishops of Ivrea and Vercelli. May, 1000 Venetian conquest of Dalmatia. On Ascension Day, Pietro Orseole II leads a large Venetian expedition against the Dalmatian pirates. It is a triumphant march down the coast. Bishops, barons and city priors offer submission to Venice and agree to pay an annual tribute. Among these are the cities of Istria (Pola, Parenzo, Pirano and Capodistria). They proceed south to Dalmatia taking Zara, Trau (where the brother of the Croatian king made a voluntary submission), Spalato/Split (where terms were discussed with the Narentine pirate leaders, foregoing their tribute and cease their molestation of Venetian galleys), Sebenico, Ragusa and Lagosta island (their impenetrable fortress fell after the Venetians destroyed their water supply tower), Arbe, Cherso, Lissa island and the island of Curzola (Korcula) (subdued by force).  For his efforts, the Doge will be granted the title of Dux Dalmatia by the Byzantine Emperor. Henceforth, Ascension Day will be marked yearly in Venice by the ceremonial marriage of the Doge to the sea.  - Betrothal of the Doge to the Adriatic Sea (Canaletto) June, 1000 After settling affairs in Germany and doing a couple of pilgrimages to the tomb of Charlemagne in Aachen and Adalbert in Gniezno, Poland, Emperor Otto III returns to Italy. He is met by papal envoys at Como and then Ravenna, pressing for the "restoration" of Church lands, notably Ravenna, Comacchio and Ferrara. July, 1000 Capua revolts and the pro-German lord Ademar of Spoleto-Capua is expelled and a brother of Pandulf II Sant' Agatha of Benevento ascends as Prince Landulf V of Capua. Soon after, the deposed duke of Naples returns to his duchy. Otto III's attempt to subjugate the south via Ademar of Spoleto has failed. 1000 - Death of Manfred I, Arduinic Marquis of Turin-Susa. He is succeeded by his son, who ascends as the Arduinic Marquis Manfred II ('Odelric') of Turin-Susa. July, 1000 March of Italy (Turin + Ivrea) Otto III expels Arduin of Ivrea, restores the property of the Bishop Varmondo of Ivrea and invests Manfred II Olderic, the Arduinic Marquis of Turin as the new Marquis of Ivrea. The two united marches will become known as the 'March of Italy". 1000 Death of Obertenghi Marquis Adalbert II. His grandson, Marquis Adalbert III, will form the stems of the future houses of Massa-Carrara, Parodi, Pellavicini and Cavalcabo. But for now, it is Adalbert II's brother, Otbert II, who sits at the head of the Obertenghi March. 1001January, 1001 Donation of Pentapoli Emperor Otto III grants his old pal, the Archbishop Leo II ("Vercelli") of Ravenna, the eight counties in the Pentapoli -- Pesaro, Fano, Sinigaglia, Ancona, Fossombrone, Galli, Jesi and Osimo -- to the Ravenna See. However, Otto III insists that this is not a restoration of Church lands, but an entirely new donation from the goodness of his heart. The donative document is prefaced by severe words. Otto III refers to the negligence of the popes in alienating Church property in return for cash, that having once frittered away their possessions, they now ridiculously claimed large chunks of the empire through fabricated documents (reference is made to the false "Donation of Constantine"). He refers to Charles the Bald's grant of public imperial property to the Church, while noting that he had given away what was not his to give. The eight Pentapolis counties, Otto III notes, are his to give, and not papal property already. It is not, he insists, a "restitution". January, 1001 Kingdom of Hungary Magyar chieftan Vajk (renamed 'Stephen' upon conversion to Christianity) receives a crown and apostolic cross from Pope Sylvester II and is given a Christian coronation as King Stephen I ('Arpad') of Hungary. The crown will be used in all subsequent coronations of Hungarian kings. Crown of St. StephenJanuary, 1001 Tivoli revolt after the murder of an imperial officer, Mazzolini of Tivoli. The revolters resist imperial attempts to subdue the city. Tivoli eventually submits with the mediation of Bishop Bernard of Hildesheim and abbot Romuald of Classe. February, 1001 Roman Uprising on the heels of Tivoli's apparent successful resistance. The Romans shut the gates of the city to the imperial army and proceed to lay siege to Aventino palace where the young Emperor Otto III was located. The imperial militia eventually restores some semblance of order and clears the way for his escape. In an impassioned plea, Otto III communicates his idea of the "Roman empire" to the citizens. But they are not interested in Roman glory, but their old independence. Upon the advice of Hugh of Tuscany, Otto III takes a rather undignified exit from Rome. He first goes to Tuscany, accompanied by Pope Sylvester II and Bernard of Hildesheim. But then, ignoring Hugh's advice, proceeds to Pavia to pick up an army assembled by Henry IV of Bavaria and then on to Ravenna. He spends some time in the cloister of Classe, where Abbot Romuald urges him to withdraw from earthly life. But Otto III refuses and begins making plans for avenging himself on Rome, subjugating the rebellious Lombard duchies of the south and even marrying a Byzantine princess (an embassy under Archbishop Arnulf II Arsago of Milan is dispatched to Constantinople for the purpose). May, 1001 Secret visit to Venice by Emperor Otto III. Protesting ill-health and feigning a curative retreat to the monastery of St. Maria on the island of Pomposa, at the mouth of the Po, Otto III slips away and pays a secret visit to Doge Pietro Orseole II of Venice. The purpose is unclear, although Otto III had long admired the combination of Byzantine and Latin civilization that Venice had fostered. After two days, he returns. June, 1001 Having assembled his troops, Emperor Otto III lays siege to Rome. He raids the surrounding countryside in the meantime. August, 1001 Hearing that Pandulf II of Benevento had joined the revolters in Capua and Naples, Otto III leaves a detachment at Rome and takes the bulk of his army south. He lays siege to Benevento, but to no avail. He returns to the siege of Rome in September. October, 1001 Giving up his siege, Otto III abandons Rome and returns to Pavia. December, 1001 Otto III goes to Ravenna, weirdly on a pilgrimage tour, while awaiting reinforcements from Germany. He proceeds to the environs of Rome later that month. 1001 Leo of Vercelli surrenders the See of Ravenna to a new Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna (?). Otto III issues a further grant, making the Archbishop of Ravenna lord over all the area between the mountains and the sea, between the rivers Reno and Foglia. Leo will continue in Vercelli until 1026. 1001 Death of Hugh the Great of Tuscany without issue, thereby ending the Hugonid dynasty of Tuscany. He is succeeded by a certain Marquis Boniface II of Tuscany (possibly related to Ademar). c.1001 Mugahid ibn Abdallah ("al Ameri", "Musetto", "Mugetto"), Emir of the Balearic Islands, launches an invasion of Sardinia. He successfully takes control of a portion of the coast and sets up bases, but the bulk of the island remains under the control of the four "judges" of Torres, Arborea, Gallura, and Cagliari.
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:23:11 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:23:28 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size] 1002January, 1002 Death of Otto III, at merely twenty-two years of age, at the castle of Paterno, outside of Rome, probably from smallpox. Without children, the empire is thrown into disarray. Five candidates throw their hats into the ring: Herman II of Swabia (the best-positioned), Otto of Worms (Duke of Carinthia), Henry IV of Bavaria, Marquis Eckhard I of Meissen and the Count-Palatine Ezzo of Lorraine. February, 1002 At an assembly at Pavia, under the heavy influence of Abbot William Volpiano of Fruttuaria, the Marquis Arduin of Ivrea, grandson of Berengar II of Ivrea, is restored to his domains and elected and crowned as King Arduin I ("Ivrea") of the Lombards by the Bishop of Pavia (the Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan is, at that moment, in Constantinople).  - Arduin I of Ivrea, King of Italy.  - Coronation of Arduin c. March, 1002 At Polling, Henry IV of Bavaria intercepts the funerary carriage taking Otto III to burial in Aachen. He forces the delivery of the royal reliquiary into his hands. However, the most important relic, the 'holy lance' is missing, having been sent ahead by the Archbishop Heribert of Cologne (a Swabian partisan). Henry II detains the Archbishop until the lance is delivered to him. June, 1002 Otto II's cousin, Henry IV of Bavaria is elected as King Henry II ("the Saint") of Germany in Mainz, against stiff opposition from Hermann of Swabia and Eckhart of Meissen. October, 1002 Death of Otto-Henry the Great, Duke of Burgundy. His stepson, Otto-William of Macon, Free Count of Burgundy (and son of Adalbert II of Italy) inherits the Duchy of Burgundy (then covering the diocese of Besancon). But his inheritance is disputed by his step-cousin, King Robert II the Pious of France, who seeks the duchy for himself. In the meantime in Italy, attempting to secure his position, Arduin of Ivrea hands out grants to numerous bishops, including the churches of Lodi and the monasteries of Lucca and Pavia. Of great significance, Arduin of Ivrea grants the county of Chiavenna and the castle of Bellinzona -- exactly on the routes trade routes between Milan and Germany -- to the Bishop of Como. This move greatly alarms Milan. While the Bishops of Pavia, Brescia, Como and Cremona are well-disposed, others -- notably the Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna and the bishops of Modena and Verona -- declare Arduin's election and coronation as invalid (coronation being a right reserved to the Archbishop of Milan, not the Bishop of Pavia). The count-bishops of the Veronese, Romagna and Emilia appeal to Henry II of Germany. When the Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan, returning from Constantinople, refuses to ratify the coronation and backs Henry II, Arduin of Ivrea goes on the warpath against the bishops. 1002 Ivrea-Obertenghi Alliance The powerful count palatine & marquis Oberto II of Milan and his three sons -- Hugo, Adalbert Azzo I and Adalbert IV -- join in Arduin's campaign against the bishops. Obert II's daughter, Bertha of Milan, is married to Arduin of Ivrea around this time. 1002 Henry II of Germany, engaged with the Slavs, responds to the pleas of the Italian bishops by dispatching an army under his second cousin, Otto of Worms (Duke of Carinthia), to be joined in Italy by the militias of Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna. December, 1002 Rallying his armies, Arduin I of Ivrea rushes to Verona, blocks the chiusa pass of the Upper Adige and defeats Otto of Worms at the Battle of Fabricca. 1002 Robert II of France annexes the Duchy of Burgundy (not the Kingdom). 1002 Venetian fleet expels the Saracens from Bari.  Pietro Orseole relieve Bari (after Dogal palace fresco)  Venetian liberation of Bari, 1002 1003February, 1003 Abbey of Fruttuaria The Benedictine monk William of Volpiano (a nephew of Arduin of Ivrea) founds the Abbey of St. Benignus of Fructuaria (San Benino di Fruttuaria) in the Canavese hills, at the very mouth of the Alpine Mt. Cenis pass. Set up according to the formula of the 'Customs of Cluny'. It is the first Cluniac monastery in Italy. (William had been a monk under Mayeul's tutelage in Cluny and reformed the monastery of Dijon in that fashion.) William's Cluniac showpiece at Fruttuaria would influence Abbots Hugh of Farfa, Siegfried of Gorze, Anno of Cologne and others to adopt the system.  - William of Volpiano  - Fruttuaria abbey Campanile of Fruttuaria AbbeyCounty of Savoy King Rudolf III of Burgundy invests the Burgundian knight (Maurienne native, possibly of Saxon descent), Humbert the White-handed (Umberto Biancamano) with the domains of Salmourenc in the Vienne region. This is the nucleus of the County of Savoy and it is common to refer to him as Count Humbert I ("Whitehanded") of Savoy. The House of Savoy would reunite Italy in the 19th C.  - House of Savoy May, 1003 Death of Hermann II of Swabia. His son ascends as Duke Hermann III of Swabia. May-June, 1003 Death of French Pope Sylvester II (Gerbert d'Aurillac). With his death, all the ties between Rome and the Germans are snapped. The leaders of the uprising of 1001 take over. John II Crescentius (son of Crenscentius II of Nomentana, who had been decapitated back in 998) is elevated to "Patrician of Rome" in 1002 and engineers the election of a Roman noble of the Sicco family as Pope John XVII. (customary numbering; it is a little off because John XVI was an anti-pope) 1003 German-Polish War begins when Boleslav I the Brave of Poland seizes Bohemia and Moravia. Henry of Schweinfurt makes common cause with the Poles. With the war on his hands, Henry II cannot pay attention to Italy, allowing Arduin of Ivrea to consolidate his position there. October, 1003 Death of Pope John XVII. Again, the Patrician of Rome, John II Crescentius, engineers the election of another Roman noble known as Giovanni Fasano, who ascends as Pope John XVIII in December.  - Giovanni Fasano, Pope John XVII. House of Octavian Roman patrician John II Crescentius distributes powers and privileges to his nephew (son of his sister Rogata and a certain Octavian), who ascends as Count and Rector Otto of Sabina, He invests a son of his other sister Theodranda as Duke Romanus of Spoleto (replacing ill-fated Ademar). who swiftly strikes up an alliance with the Byzantine court, possibly intending to bring Rome back under eastern sovereignty. 1003 First Communal War: Lucca vs. Pisa. Record of the first war between Italian cities. Pisa, who's wealth has been growing as a result of its rapidly-rising navy (necessary to fend off the Saracens) gets into an conflict with Lucca, the formal ducal capital of Tuscany, which is attempting to assert its traditional rights there. Pisan armies whallop the Lucchese at the battles of Acqualunga and Ripafratta. Large amounts of booty are carried back to Pisa.  - Pisa 1003 In a second bout of serial bigamy, Robert II of France repudiates his wife, Bertha of Burgundy (daughter of Conrad of Burgundy) to marry Constance of Arles (daughter of the powerful William I of Provence). Ruthlessly ambitious, Constance immediately begins packing the French court and offices with her Provencal relatives. But the repudiation of Bertha removes the charge of consanguinity and Robert II's excommunication is lifted. 1004April, 1004 Henry the Saint's expedition to Italy, via the Brenner pass, to Trent, where he receives the homage of the count-bishop of Verona and other rebel lords. Arduin, once again, rushes to block the chiuse of Adige valley to block his approach to Verona, but this time Henry changes direction and goes down the Brenta river valley instead, re-emerging near Vicenza. Henry's deft maneuver sends many of Arduin's supporters into a panic -- and they duly desert him. Like his grandfather before him, Arduin I rushes back to Ivrea, to prepare his defenses. At Verona, Henry II splits his troops, sending one detachment towards Milan, to pursue Arduin of Ivrea, while he takes the remainder to Pavia. May, 1004 Henry II of Germany arrives in Pavia and is crowned as King Henry I ("the Saint") of the Lombards by Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan.  - Election of Henry the Saint as Lombard king at Pavia (Goslar, Kaiserpfalz) May, 1004 Pavia Riots In the coronation festivities, a quarrel ensues between the burghers of Pavia and the Germans of Henry II's suite, prompting a mob (possibly whipped up by Arduin's agents) to march on the imperial palace and try to set fire to it. The main army, encamped outside the wall, enters the town to rescue the king. To clear their way, they massacre a bunch of folks and set fire to a number of houses. This raises up the anger of the remainder of the Pavian populace and they fall upon the Germans. In the ensuing riots and suppression, the city of Pavia is destroyed. May, 1004 With Pavia destroyed, Henry II holds court in Pontelungo, receiving the homage of the Italian nobility, before proceeding to Milan and, thereafter, through Gotthard's pass, back to Germany, secure that Arduin of Ivrea's support is so minor to pose no problem. May, 1004 Siege of Bari by the Arab qadi Safi. The Byzantine captain Gregory Tracacciotis defends the city valiantly for four months. 1004 Feudal Chaos in Italy The reduction of Arduin of Ivrea and the departure of the German king Henry II prompts a bout of feudal chaos in Italy. City against city (Pisa vs. Lucca), bishop against bishop (Arnulf II of Milan vs. of Alric of Asti), small lords against their superiors (e.g. Marquis Obert II vs. his vassal knights). All this is made more acute by the hunger that had gripped Italy that year. Rising to the ocassion are the Obertenghi family, led by Oberto II of Milan, Liguria, Piedmont and Emilia/northern Tuscany, the Alerami family of Acqui and Savona and the house of Canossa who dominate Modena, Reggio, Mantua, Brescia and Ferrara. 1004 Sack of Pisa Lured by the Luccan booty and awaiting for the Pisan fleet to depart for a raid on Calabria, the Balearic Emir Mugahid "Musetto" swoops in and sacks Pisa, destroying nearly a quarter of the city. September, 1004 The Byzantine citadel of Bari is on the brink of capitulation, when the sudden arrival of the Venetian fleet (in compliance with the 992 treaty) replenishes the city. In a subsequent three-day Battle of Bari, the Venetian-Byzantine forces defeat the Saracens and save Bari. The grateful Byzantines shower the Venetians with honors. A son of Pietro Orseole II -- Giovanni -- is married to a Byzantine princess in Constantinople. 1004 Death of Otto of Worms, Duke of Carinthia and cousin of Emperor Otto III. His third son ascends as Duke Conrad I of Carinthia (Otto's other sons are Henry of Speyer (stem of Salian dynasty) and Bruno of Carinthia (Pope Gregory V)).
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 12, 2007 18:23:46 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:04:41 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA
1005 Pisan fleet sacks Reggio-in-Calabria, which had been a prominent Arab perch.
1005 Henry the Saint invests his brother-in-law, Henry I of Ardennes-Luxemburg, as Duke Henry V of Bavaria.
1006 King Rudolph III of Burgundy appoints Henry the Saint as his heir.
August, 1006 Saracen fleet appears before Pisa, but departs again. The Pisans, with memories of the 1004 sack still fresh, take to the sea to give chase. The Arab fleet is destroyed by the Pisans at the Battle of Reggio.
1007
1007 Bishop Peter of Asti, a partisan of Arduin of Ivrea, is deposed by imperial order of Henry the Saint and replaced by Bishop Adalric of Asti (a brother of Marquis Manfred II Odelric of Turin).
1008
1008 Italian king Arduin I of Ivrea besieges Asti and forces Adalric of Asti to submit. Adalric and his brother pay Arduin a large indemnity.
1008 Death of Pietro Orseole II, muscular doge and conqueror of Dalmatia. His son ascends as Doge Otto Orseole of Venice.
1009
October, 1009 In a fit of madness, the eccentric Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim orders the destruction of the Holy Sepulchre and other Christian shrines in Jerusalem.
1009 Disintegration of Cordoba Deposition of the Umayyad Caliph Hisham II of Cordoba and his minister Abd al-Rahman ('Sanchuelo'). Civil war erupts between competing factions. Spain descends into chaos for decades, and will fragment swiftly into multiple mini-kingdoms ('taifas')
1009 Diet of Goslar.
c. May, 1009 Apulian Revolt Lombard subjects in Apulia rebel against Byzantine rule. The rebellion is led by two Lombard noblemen, Melus and his brother Dattus of Bari. The revolt starts in Bari and quickly spreads to Ascoli and Troina. The Byzantine catapan John Cuarcus is killed in the process.
July, 1009 Death of John XVIII. Ascension of Pope Sergius IV.
1009 Henry II of Germany seizes Bavaria back from Henry I of Luxemburg.
1010
1010 Balearic Emir Mugahid ibn-Abdallah (Musetto) sets up his headquarters at Denia, on the Spanish coast.
March, 1010 New Byzantine catapan Basil Mesardonites lands in Italy with a fresh army and lays siege to Bari, then held by the Lombard rebels.
1011
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:05:06 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:05:28 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA10111011 Second Arab sack of Pisa. June, 1011, Bari falls. Greek citizens of Bari rise up against the rebel Lombards and deliver the city to the catapan Basil. Rebel Melus flees to Salerno and Dattus flees to Monte Cassino, but their families are taken captive and carted off to Constantinople. October, 1011 Catapan Basil Mesardonites visits Guaimar III of Salerno and secures his cooperation. Melus is forced to flee again. Basil proceeds to Monte Cassino and persuades the Abbot Atenulf to expel the rebel. With papal help, Dattus barricades himself in the tower of Garigliano, a fortified complex near Capua formally belonging to the patrimony of St. Benedict. 1012Spring, 1012 House of Tusculum Death of John II Crescentius, Patrician of Rome. With this comes the end of the House of Crescenzi's dominance of Rome -- and begins that of another branch of the House of Theophylact, the pro-German House of Tusculum led by the brothers Alberic III, Romanus and Theophylact III (the sons of Count Gregory I of Tusculum, former companion of Emperor Otto III). The House of Tusculum is supposedly descended directly from the line of Marozia and Alberic of Rome (in contrast, the nationalist Crescenzi, Octavian & Stefanian branches, descend from Marozia's sister Theodora II).  April, 1012 Death of Hermann III of Swabia without heirs. End of the Swabian Wetterau dynasty. His closest male relative is his young nephew Ernest von Babenburg, son of his sister Gisele's marriage to Ernest von Babenberg of Austria. As a result, in order to hold the duchy, Ernest of Austria ascends as Duke Ernest I ("Babenberg") of Swabia. April, 1012 Death of Pope Sergius IV. The nationalist Crescenzi faction (now represented by the Stephanian and Octavian counts Crescentius III and Otto of Sabina) back the election of a candidate, a certain anti-Pope Gregory (VI) But the House of Tusculum push through the youngest brother of the trio, Theophylact III of Tusculum, Bishop of Porto, who ascends as Pope Benedict VIII, the first of the Tusculan popes. Benedict VIII's eldest brother, former "master of imperial palace" under Otto III, Alberic III of Rome becomes consul and dux of Rome, while his other brother, Romanus of Tusculum, is made consul, dux and "Senator of all Romans".  - Theophylact of Tusculum, Pope Benedict VIII Their rivals of the Crescenzi sub-branches are persuaded to submit. The Stefanian scion Crescentius de Stefania becomes prefect of Rome, while the Octavian scion Otto of Sabina becomes count and rector of Sabina. In return, they agree to drop their support for Gregory. Anti-Pope Gregory VI is forced to flee to Germany, where he begs Henry II for assistance. Fall, 1012 Knowing he cannot defy the emperor, Pope Benedict VIII proceeds a diplomatic course, through the good offices of the bishops of Piacenza, Parma and Vercelli and notable Waltard of Magdeburg. With a promise of an imperial coronation, Henry II recognizes Pope Benedict VIII and drops his rival, the anti-Pope Gregory (VI). The Octavians, naturally, change their allegiance to the anti-imperial party of Arduin. 1013 June, 1013 Death of Gregory I of Tusculum and father of Pope Benedict VIII and head of the Tusculan clan. 1013 Pisans conquers Piombino. December, 10013 Henry's Second Expedition to Italy Continuing problems in Italy and Pope Benedict VIII's overtures prompt Henry II the Saint's second expedition to Italy to impose law and order. 1014February, 1014 Henry II of Germany-Lombardy arrives in Rome and is crowned as Emperor Henry I ("the Saint") by Pope Benedict VIII.  - Henry I 'the Saint', King of the Lombards, Emperor (Henry IV of Bavaria/Henry II of Germany). But tumults in favor of Arduin and the anti-Pope Gregory continue, led by the Obertenghi brothers, the Marquises Hugh, Adalbert Azzo I and Adalbert IV of Milan. Henry II suppresses and captures them, taking them in captivity over the Alps to the abbey of Fulda. Hugo manages to escape. They are all later released. 1014 - Hammadid Algeria The Hammadids, a cadet branch of the Zirid clan seizes control of western Ifriqiya (Algeria) and declares itself independent and Sunni (thereby repudiating recognition of the Fatimid Caliph in Egypt). The main (and still loyalist) Zirid branch retain control of eastern Ifriqiya (Tunisia and Tripoli). 10151015 Sicilian Coup Ja'afar's apathy to reverses on the mainland deepens the discontent among the the Saqaliba and Berbers in the Sicilian army. Finally, the Sudanese Saqaliba and Berber garrisons set aside their natural rivalries and launch a joint coup to install Ja'far's brother, Ali, on the throne. But the deposed Ja'far called on the Arab junds and the coup is defeated. The aftermath is horribly vengeful - Ali is executed and nearly the entire corps of Sudanese Saqaliba, the nucleus of the Sicilian army, are either massacred or deported back to Africa; large chunks of the Berber population are also deported en masse to Africa, their Sicilian property confiscated. With this one step, the Kalbid emir has decimated his own army, leaving only the unreliable Arab junds and the even-more-unreliable Mawali to stand on. 1015 With the Obertenghi subdued and Bishop Leo of Vercelli peeling his Ivrean vassals from him, Arduin's positions becomes untenable. Tired of the fight, Arduin of Italy abdicates and retires to the monastery of Fruttuaria in the Canevese hills. 1015 Death of Ernest I of Swabia. His son ascends as Duke Ernest II of Swabia. But is still a minor (idiot?). Ernest's widow, Gisela von Wetterau, takes charge of the government herself. 1015 Pisan-Genoese Expedition Pope Benedict VII begins pressing for an expedition to dislodge the Balearic Arabs from their dangerous perches in Corsica, Sardinia and Elba. He helps arrange a mighty joint Pisan-Genoese expedition against the Saracen-held island. The expedition turns first against Corsica. 1015 Municipal self-government at Benevento, first commune? December, 1015 Death of Arduin I, Marquis of Ivrea and King of Italy, in the Abbey of Fruttuaria. His widow, Bertha of Luni (sister of the Obertenghi brothers) marries the elderly Marquis Manfred II Odelric of Turin.
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:05:56 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:06:26 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA10161016 An Italian conspiracy to install Free Count Otto-William of Burgundy (son of Adalbert II of Ivrea) as Italian king, supported by King Rudolf III of Burgundy. It is quickly defused by Emperor Henry II of Germany, who secures his succession as Count of Burgundy. 1016 In response to the Pisan-Genoese assault, the Saracens sack and destroy Luni, the Tuscan town that was the stem of the Obertenghi clan. The powerful Pisan-Genoese fleet hunts down and defeats the Balearic Emir Magahid ("Musetto") and destroys the Arab perches on Sardinia. 1016 Gisela von Wetterau, widowed duchess and regent of Swabia marries the Franconian nobleman Conrad the Salian (son of Count Henry of Speyer). 1016 Ja'far of Sicily makes the mistake of striking out against Salerno with his thin army - and the defeat is predictable and very costly. 1016 After a long-drawn out war, Robert II of France finally expels Otto-William, Count of Burgundy and claimant on the Duchy of Burgundy back over the Saone. The Duchy of Burgundy is annexed into the French crown. 1016 Homage at Strasbourg King Robert III of Burgundy does homage to Robert II the Pious of France, designating him heir and protector of the Burgundian kingdom. At Constance of Arles's urging, Hugh Magnus (her eldest son) is invested as co-King of France, while her younger son (and favorite), Robert, is invested as the new Duke Robert of Burgundy. February, 1016 Pandulf III 'the Black' of Capua associates his cousin, with the throne, who thereby ascends as Pandulf IV ('Wolf of the Abruzzi') of Capua. Pandulf IV is very partial towards the Byzantines. March, 1016 Death of catapan Basil Mesardonites of Italy. He is replaced by the Leo Tornikios Kontoleon (former strategos of Cephalonia) as catapan of Italy. c.1016 Arrival of the Normans Two conflicting accounts. In one, a group of about forty Norman pilgrims returning from the Holy Land c.1015 (some give date as 999) assisted Guaimar III of Salerno against a Saracen siege. Impressed by their martial prowess, Guaimar asked them to spread the word back in Normandy that he was interested in hiring some Norman knights. In another account, the pilgrims encountered the rebel Melus of Bari in Mt. Gargano who invited them to help him fight the Byzantines. The pilgrims refused, but said they would ask back home if anyone was interested. (Disatisfaction with Duke Richard II of Normandy was high, so knights were interested). Whatever the impetus, the first Norman company, some 250-strong, led by the Drengot ('de Quarrel') brothers (Osmond, Gilbert, Asclettin and Ranulf, reputedly exiled by Richard II for a high-level murder) arrives in southern Italy (Capua) in 1016 in the service of Guaimar III of Salerno and and join the army his ally, Melus of Bari.  - Normans 10171017 - Henry the Saint restores Bavaria to Henry I of Luxemburg. May, 1017 - Melus of Bari and his Norman friends meets the Byzantine army of the new catapan Leo Tornicius at the Battle of Arenula. The outcome is indecisive, but he then defeats them in two follow up battles at Civita and Vaccaricia. With these victories, nearly all of Apulia falls into Melus's hands. December, 1017 - Emperor Basil II replaces Leo with a new catapan Basil Boiannes who lands with a massive fresh Byzantine army, in which are included his own norsemen, the Varangian guard. 1018March, 1018 Death of Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan. Aribert (or Heribert) of Intimiano, member of an influential capitani family of Milan (hereditary vassals of the archbishop), is invested as Archbishop Aribert ("d'Intimiano") of Milan.  Aribert d'Intimiano, Archbishop of Milan. Archbishop Aribert will play a crucial role in the transformation of Lombardia into a land of independent communes. Spring, 1018 - Boiannes's army marches up Apulia, taking back the insurgent cities with great brutality - most famously Trani, where massacres are ordered to 'inspire the others'. Boiannes's successes persuade Pandulf IV of Capua and his brother Abbot Atenulf of Monte Cassino to abandon Melus and the Normans to their fate. October, 1017 Byzantine army under Boiannes decisively defeat the army of Melus at the Battle of Cannae (near the ancient battlefield). It is a veritable massacre. Four-fifths of the Norman company is slain. Dattus flees to the relative safety of the papal-protected tower of Garigliano (on Monte Cassino territory, near Capua), while Melus skips over to Rome, and then on to the Henry's court in Bamberg, Germany. Frightened out of his wits, Guaimar III of Salerno, nominally a vassal of the German Emperor, swiftly switches suzerainity over to the Byzantine Emperor, while the princes of Benevento have no choice but to allow the Byzantines to into their domains to mop up the Lombard resistance. The triumphant Boiannes builds up the fortress of Troia on the edge of the Apulian-Beneventine border. 1018 - Peace of Bautzen between Henry II of Germany and Boleslav I of Poland ends the long German-Polish War. Poland keeps Lusatia, Germany keeps Bohemia. With peace made on that frontier, Poland redireicts its forces on an offensive against the Kievan Rus, giving the Germans the time concentrate on Italy. 10191019 Despite the influx of Berber property, the Kalbid treasury is drained by the luxurious court and the disastrous campaign. Under the guidance of of his ministers, thevizier Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Baghani and chamberlain Abu Rafi, the Sicilian governor Ja'far begins overhauling the state's finances, replacing customary taxation with a new heavy income tax on the Muslim population. The population revolts. As the Palerman militias besieged Ja'far in his palace, his paralyzed old father, Yusuf, rouses from his sickbed to address the crowd, dismissing Ja'far and his ministers, appointing another son, as governor Ahmed 'al-Akhal' of Sicily. 1019 Death of John VIII of Aquileia. Wolfgang of Treffen, son a Bavarian lord, is invested as Patriarch Poppo of Aquileia1019 In a calculated annoyance, Archbishop Aribert of Milan forbids Bishop Eusebius of Pavia from processions behind a high cross, a privilege he decides to make exclusive to himself. 1020April, 1020 For the first time in 150 years, a Pope travels to Germany. Benedict VIII arrives in Bamberg, Germany, to consecrate the church and settle a dispute between the bishops of Mainz and Wurzburg. It is at this meeting that Henry grants the Pope the Abbey of Fulda and makes the bishopric of Bamberg a protectorate of the Holy See. Benedict VIII relates to Henry II of Germany the state of southern Italy, the switching of allegiances and, most troubling, the build up of new Byzantine fortifications, notably Troia. At the urging of the Pope and Melus, Henry contemplates a campaign against the south, but remains non-commital. April, 1020 Death of Melus of Bari, in exile in Bamberg, just one week after the arrival of the pope and just after Henry bestowed the title of Duke of Apulia on Melus. Summer, 1020 Benedict VIII returns to Rome. 1020 After a small earthquake, Pope Benedict VIII authorizes the outbreak of a violent persecutions against Jews in Rome, possibly the first since the days the Caesars. 1020, Bernard II of Saxony rebels against Henry the Saint.
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Post by Khalid ibn Walid on Feb 23, 2007 23:06:41 GMT -5
FEUDAL LOMBARDIA
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