Italian History - timeline

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[Khalid ibn Walid]

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960

Carrying on his own, Guido of Ivrea conquers Spoleto and deposes Theobald II ("Bologna") of Spoleto-Camerino. He is replaced by Thrasimund III of Spoleto. With Spoleto disposed of, Berengar of Ivrea dispatches his other son Adalbert II against Rome itself. Adalbert proceeds to occupy much of the Papal States.

With Adalbert II closing in on Rome, Pope John XII in conjunction with Hubert of Tuscany-Spoleto appeal to Otto I of Germany for assistance, dispatching the Cardinal Deacon John and the scriniarius Azzo to deliver the request.

They are not the only petitioners in Otto's court. Already begging for German help are Archbishop Valpert de Medici of Milan and Bishop Valdo of Como, both of them escorted by the Obertenghi Marquis Oberto I Obizzo of Eastern Liguria, who has had enough of Berengar II's feudal ways.

But so many invitations are unnecessary. With the German dukes now all replaced by hand-picked loyalists, the Magyars and Slavs subdued, Otto I is about ready to take upon himself the mantle of Charlemagne. It is not merely for a feather in his cap either. Successful in the east, Otto I could use a sympathetic Pope to raise bishoprics to help his colonization plans in the east. Otto I begins his preparations. Wary of this, Berengar II of Ivrea orders his son Adalbert II to suspend his campaign in Rome.

960/61 - Aleramic March of western Liguria - Gerberga of Ivrea, daughter of King Berengar II, marries Count Aleram of Vercelli-Acqui. Berengar II of Ivrea raises his new son-in-law, as Marquis Aleram I of western Liguria, a complex carved out of the south-central area of the March of Ivrea that encompasses the lands of Montferrat, Acqui, Vado and Savona.

- Aleramic Marquises of Montferrat

961

961 For intriguing with Otto, Berengar II deposes Hubert of Tuscany (he will die c. 967). Hubert's son is invested as Marquis Hugh ("the Great") of Tuscany.

- Hugh the Great of Tuscany.

961 Byzantines recapture Crete from the Arabs. Crete had been an important perch for Saracen freebooters in the Adriatic.

May, 961 Diet of Worms in preparation for Otto I's expedition to Italy. He has his young son, Otto II (from Adelaide of Burgundy, widow of Lothair II of Italy) pre-elected King of Germany in advance and then crowned nearby at Aachen. He then settles the government in his absence. Otto II is placed under the tutelage of his grandmother Mathilda and his half-brother William of Mainz. Otto's own brother, Bruno of Cologne, is charged with the provisional government of Lorraine again. To keep control in the east, Otto invests his own Duchy of Saxony in Margrave Herman I of the Billunger March.

August, 961 Second Expedition to Italy by King Otto I of Germany, to assist the beleaguered young Pope John XII. His great army crosses into Italy via the Brenner pass. Berengar II of Ivrea dispatches his son and co-ruler Adalbert II at the head of a large army to seize control of the Upper Adige and contest Otto's entry.

But the Italian army mutinies and refuses to fight the Germans unless Berengar II of Ivrea abdicates in favor of Adalbert. Berengar refuses and, as a result, much of the Italian army melts away. Berengar and his family take whatever loyal soldiers remain and disperse themselves -- Berengar II at the fortress of San Leo/Montefeltro (in the Pentapoli), the queen Willa on the island of S. Giulio d'Orta (on Lake Orta, near Novara). The sons, Adalbert II and Guido of Ivrea, are holed up in the castles of Lake Garda.

- Fortress of San Leo, Montefeltro

961 Otto passes through the Alps unchallenged and makes his way to Pavia with little difficulty.

As his first order of business, Otto orders the rebuilding of the imperial palace (demolished by Berengar's orders) and restores the exiled bishops -- Valperto de Medici to Milan and Valdo to Como and appoints the chronicler Liutprand to Cremona. Otto I confirms and restores the Obertenghi Marquis Oberto I Obizzo of Eastern Liguria (Genoa, Luni-Tortona) in his dominions. Hugh the Great (rather than his father Hubert) remains in Tuscany.

962 - Arduinic March of Italy Otto I confirms and raises Count Arduin II 'il Glabrio' of Auriate-Turin-Susa as Arduinic Marquis Arduin ('il Glabrio') of Turin, over a vast area encompassing western Piedmont, from the Po down to the sea, what will evolve into the Arduinic March of Italy.

December, 961 Otto I spends Christmas in Pavia and then prepares his trip to Rome. He dispatches the Abbot Mathew of Fulda ahead of him to negotiate the terms of an imperial coronation with Pope John XII.

962

January, 962 Otto I arrives at Monte Mario, outside of Rome. He and his entourage take oaths of non-aggression and promise to restore the territory of the Roman Church, before entering.Rome.

February 2, 962 The Holy Roman Empire. Coronation of Saxon King Otto I of Germany as Western Emperor Otto I by Pope John XII, thus uniting the German, Lombard and Roman crowns again in one person. The Holy Roman Empire covers remnants of the Carolingian empire in Germany (East Francia) and Northern Italy (Lombardy) and will eventually include Burgundy as well.

- Crown of the Holy Roman Emperor

February, 14, 962 Privilegium Ottonianum Treaty signed between Emperor Otto I and Pope John XII. A rather confused document, it essentially reaffirms previous treaties signed with the Frankish kings.

In territorial terms, Otto confirms to the Holy See the donation of Pepin, the Duchy of Rome, Sabina, the lands of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis, some cities of Tuscany and Campania, including Capua, the ecclesiastical lands in the territories of Benevento and Naples, Calabria and Sicily and Gaeta and Fondi. To all this, Otto throws in some towns from the March of Spoleto (notably, Rieti, Amiterno, Aquila (Forcone), Norcia, Valva, Marsica and Teramo) and confirms an annual census to Rome from Spoleto and Tuscany.

In terms of politics, the 824 Constitutio of Lothair is reaffirmed (which had reintroduced the laity into the election process and required the presence of imperial missi). But the old office of a permanent imperial judge (missi) is not reinstated and Otto swears to not hold judicial proceedings in Rome (or concerning Romans) without papal approval.

For his part, John XII agrees to imperial designs for the Roman Church (in particular the elevation of the sees of Merseburg and Magdeburg) and swears fealty to the emperor and promises not to comfort or receive Berengar II of Ivrea or his sons, Adalbert II and Guido of Ivrea.

Otto I confirming the Papal donation (fresco at Vatican)

Privilegium Ottonianium - copy at Vatican

February, 15, 962 Otto leaves Rome and returns to Pavia. While making preparations to root out Berengar II and his family, Otto goes about state business. He confirms Bishop Raterius in Verona, an important post now that the area is under the regency of Judith of Bavaria. Bishop Guido of Modena is made archchancellor and granted the abbey of Nonantola.

Obertenghi Lombardy - Oberto I Obizzo, Count of Luni and Marquis of Eastern Liguria ( the Obertenghi March), an old companion of Berengar of Ivrea who had nonetheless sided with Otto during the 960 crisis, is granted the abbey of Bobbio and made count palatine in Italy (displacing Conrad Cono of Pombia) by Emperor Otto I (he will be subsequently referred to as the Marquis of Lombardy or Marquis of Milan).

May, 962 Otto takes his armies to lay siege to S. Giulia, an island in Lake Orta, where Berengar's queen Willa had barricaded herself.

July, 962 Queen Willa surrenders. The island of S. Giulia is restored to the Bishop of Novara. Willa is treated generously and allowed to go free by Otto. She immediately departs for Montefeltro to join her husband Berengar II of Ivrea.

Summer, 962 Otto proceeds to lay siege to Lake Garda, where the sons of Berengar, Guido of Ivrea and Adalbert II, and their supporters are holed up. Finding severe resistance, Otto gives up the enterprise and returns to Pavia, where he will remain through to the next year.

Fall, 962 Otto I receives news that Pope John XII had betrayed him and entered into intrigues not only with Berengar II of Ivrea, but also with the Byzantines. The letters are intercepted by Pandulf Ironhead of Capua-Benevento, who forwards them to Otto.

962 Death of Charles Constantine, Count of Vienne (son of Louis the Blind of Lower Burgundy). The effective Countess Bertha of Arles takes Vienne. (mother of William III of Toulouse?).

962 Era of the Bishops (Part 2) With Bishops already in control of the state property in many towns in Francia & Lombardy, the next step is to erase the Count entirely. In one of the earliest instances (962), Hubert, Bishop of Parma is granted all the rights of the Count within the city and for three miles around and wherever else the inhabitants of Parma may have property. However, the Count remains supreme in the rest of the district (hence, the countryside). With this, there emerges a jurisdictional and legal separation of town & country throughout the end of the 10th Century, the separation of the town and the dependent district of the old Roman civitas.

962 Ottonian Diploma to Bishop of Parma

- A Bishop of Brescia (old Brescia cathedral)

[Khalid ibn Walid]

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[Khalid ibn Walid]

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963

Spring, 963 Fugitive prince Adalbert II takes refuge among the Muslims of Fraxinet and then roams through Corsica. Entering into correspondence with Pope John XII, he is invited to take refuge in Rome.

Spring, 963 Otto I leaves Pavia for Ravenna, and then into the Pentapoli to lay siege to Montefeltro fortress where Berengar II and his wife Willa, were now holding out. Unable to take it by assault, Otto decides to take it by hunger, using the interlude to hand out even more benefices and shore up his supporters. Berengar decides to hold out, hoping that Adalbert II and the Pope John XII will come to his rescue.

963 While at S. Leo, Otto I tries to assuage Pietro Candiano IV of Venice, an old partisan of Berengar's. He grants his son, Vitale Candiano, the regnal corte of Mestra in the March of Treviso and the abbacy of S. Zaccaria (run by Giovanna, Pietro Candiano's repudiated wife).

Having been asked to explain himself, Pope John XII dispatches an emissary to Otto I, arguing that he is forced to take this route because Otto has not restored church lands, because papal vassals are being forced to swear oaths to the emperor and because Otto is giving refuge to two rebel clerics, Cardinal Deacon John and Bishop Leo of Velletri. Otto I dispatches Liutprand of Cremona to Rome, explaining he cannot restore the church lands, so long as Berengar II is at arms, the oaths are a necessary expedient in time of war. He also denies the presence of the two clerics. Furthermore, he accuses John XII of having (through a Bulgarian bishop) incited the Magyars to intervene. He also dispatches a couple of knights to prove his word in a trial by ordeal. John XII drops the issue.

Soon after the exchange with Otto, Adalbert II enters Rome and is received with great pomp by Pope John XII. The break between Emperor and Pope is now complete.

Fall, 963 A pro-imperial group of Roman nobles seizes the Papal castle at S. Paolo fuori le Mura and invite Otto to Rome. Leaving behind a detachment to continue the siege of S. Leo, Otto I takes the bulk of his army towards Rome.

Otto I arrives at Rome in November, but not before Adalbert II and Pope John XII flee into the Roman Campania, armed to their teeth and with most of the Papal treasury. Otto is warmly received by the Romans, who swear never to elect another pope without imperial consent.

Synod of St. Peter convened by Otto I to decide the fate of Pope John XII. Presided over by the Cardinal Deacon Benedict, among those attending are Cardinal Deacon John and the scriniarius Azzo (ambassadors to Otto), the bishops Liutprand of Cremona, Valpert of Milan, Peter of Ravenna, Hubert of Parma, Ermenald of Reggio, a representative of the sick Patriarch Engelfried of Aquileia, archbishops Adaldag of Bremen and Landuard (representing Saxony) and Odgar of Speyer (representing Franconia). John XII is accused of all sorts of irregularities, such as giving mass without communion, appointing a child as Bishop of Todi, selling church charities, ordering the murder of a bunch of folks, adultery, arson, playing dice, invoking pagan gods, consecrating bishops in a stable, etc.

Before deposition, however, they dispatch a letter to John XII in Tivoli, inviting him to Rome to defend himself. John XII's reply, threatening excommunication, is mocked for its poor Latin by the Synod.

December, 963 At Otto's urging, the Synod of St. Peter passes its sentence and deposes John XII, son of the great Alberic of Rome and grandson of Marozia. The Romans dutifully elect the protoscrinarius Leo, a lay high curial secretary, who ascends as Pope Leo VIII. He was hurried through the clerical ordination in three days by Bishop Sico of Ostia.

Pope Leo VIII

December, 963 The fortress of Montefeltro falls to German forces, as does the fortress of Lake Garda soon after. Bereganar II of Ivrea, former King of the Lombards and his wife Willa are taken prisoner and dispatched to Bamberg, where they will live out the remainder of their lives. Berengar will die sometime in 966. Their sons Guido of Ivrea and Adalbert II, however, remain at large. Separating from the deposed Pope John XII, they flee back to Corsica.

963 Duchy of Poland is made into a tributary state to the Holy Roman Empire.

963 Death of Engelfried of Aquileia. Ascension of Patriarch Rodoald of Aquileia.

964

January, 964 Just a few days after Otto orders his army out of Rome, there is an anti-German uprising in Rome. Otto is besieged in the Vatican by the mob. But the imperial guard fights them off and undertakes a bloody massacre at Sant' Angelo bridge. The uprising is crushed and the Romans renew their oaths. At the urging of Leo VIII, Otto releases the hundred or so hostages that had been taken.

Hearing that Adalbert II had returned to the mainland and is in the environs of Spoleto, Otto leaves Rome with his army, charging the defense of the city to Bishop Odgar of Speyer and a small garrison.

February, 964 With Otto gone, the Roman uprising is renewed, this time successfully. Odgar of Speyer is taken prisioner, but Leo VIII escapes. Pope John XII returns to Rome to great acclamation.

February, 964 Counter-Synod of St. Peter held by Pope John XII. The election of Pope Leo VIII is nullified and all those who participated in his brief papacy are divested of their benefices. His own ambassadors to Otto are mutilated: Cardinal Deacon John has his nose, tongue and fingers cut off, the scriniarius Azzo has his whole hand cut off ("for drawing up so many evil letters"). But John XII stops short of excommunicating Otto (as he had threatened). Hoping to reach an agreement with him, he dispatches Odgar of Speyer to negotiate terms.

May, 964 Death of Pope John XII. Election of a learned scholar Benedictus Grammaticus as Pope Benedict V. News of the death and new election reaches Otto I at Rieti. Infuriated at the affront that the Romans did not respect him so much as even to elect his man, Leo VIII, after John, Otto I immediately turns towards Rome, intent on making sure his authority felt. He proceeds to lay siege to Rome.

June, 964 Re-Synod. Starved into submission, Rome falls to Otto I who enters the city and proceeds to enter the city and calls for a new Synod at St. Peter's. Cowed, Pope Benedict V immediately renounces the papacy in favor of Leo VIII, is deprived of his honors and dispatched to exile in Hamburg. Pope Leo VIII is restored.

Summer, 964 Otto proceeds on campaign in Italy, remaining in the environs of Lucca. However, plague and famine envelops Italy, killing a good part of the imperial entourage, including Archbishop Henry I of Trier and Duke Godfrey of Lower Lorraine. It also feeds much discontent among the populace.

Fall, 964 Otto leaves plague-wracked Lucca and heads towards Liguria. His rearguard is attacked by Adalbert II, with a contingent of Corsicans. The imperial capellan, Otto, is captured. Emperor Otto I hurries back to Pavia.

At about this time, Bishop Valdo of Como captures Isola Comacina, an pro-Adalbert stronghold in Lake Como.



965

January, 965 Believing Italy sufficiently pacified, Emperor Otto returns to Germany, via Milan and Como. But Adalbert II knits together an anti-German coalition of Italian lords, including his brother Conrad of Pombia, Bernard of Pavia (son-in-law of Hugh of Provence and thus Adalbert's relative), Bishop Siguald of Piacenza, Bishop Guido of Modena (Otto's archchancellor (!) and abbot of Nonantola) and the Marquis Hugo the Great of Tuscany.

At Otto I's direction, the Duke Burchard III of Swabia invades Italy. Adalbert II advances his army against him, but is defeated in a Battle of River Po.

Adalbert II escapes, but among the losses are his own brothers, Marquis Guido of Ivrea is killed in battle and Count Conrad of Pombia is captured (but subsequently released and allowed to take up his brother's title as Marquis Conrad ('Cono') of Ivrea). Among his partisans, the might Marquis Hugh of Tuscany is banished. Bishop Guido of Modena is sent in exile among the Slavs, his title of archchancellor and the abbot of Nonantola being passed to Bishop Hubert of Parma.

March, 965 Death of Pope Leo VIII, just as peace was restored, everything is back to the beginning. The Romans dispatch an emissary to Otto, begging him for the return of Benedict V, the deposed pope then in exile in Hamburg. But Otto refuses (Benedict V will die in July anyway). Instead, Otto dispatches an army to escort Odgar of Speyer and Liutprand of Cremona to Rome as missi to oversee the election of a different candidate.

October, 965 House of Crescenzi Under the eye of the imperial missi Odgar of Speyer and Liutprand of Cremona, the Romans settle on the aristocrat Bishop John of Narni who ascends as Pope John XIII. John belonged to the Crescenzi branch of the House of Theophylact (John XIII was the son of Theodora II, younger daughter of the Senatrix Theodora I, and her husband John Crescenzius).

- John of Narni, Pope John XIII.

- Crescenzi coat of arms

Casa dei Crescenzi in Rome.

December, 965 Roman Coup John XIII's pro-imperial stance quickly disappoints the other branches of the Roman nobility. A conspiracy is hatched by Prefect Peter of Rome (who had been appointed to keep law and order by Otto!), Count Gottfried of the Campagna, the vestararius Stephen, with the implicit assent of the twelve humble captains (decarcones) of the city's quarters and a good proportion of the clerical bureaucracy. The coup ensues in early December. John XIII is captured, beat up and imprisoned in the Castle Sant'Angelo. But he is subsequently transferred into the Campagna, to a castle of Count Gottfried, from whence he manages to escape with the help of Pandulf Ironhead of Capua-Benevento. The Romans giddily enjoy their independence again, as in the days of Alberic.

965 Death of Archbishop Bruno I of Cologne, brother of Otto I.

965 Death of Aylward. He is succeeded by Abbot Mayeul of Cluny.

- St. Mayeul, Abbot of Cluny

[Khalid ibn Walid]

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[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]


966

August, 966 Third Expedition to Italy A diet is convened by Otto I on the Roman question. It unanimously supports a third expedition to Italy to sort it out. With reliable Bruno dead, Otto places the government of Germany in the hands of Hermann I of Saxony and the young Otto II under the tutelage of Archbishop William of Mainz

Otto departs immediately in the fall. He first stops in Lombardy to do some house-cleaning re. Adalbert II of Ivrea's partisans. Bishop Siguald of Piacenza is sent off to Germany (he will be judged the next year and deprived of his see), Bernard of Pavia is deprived of his benefices, which are passed on to Count Giselbert II of Bergamo. Interestingly, Guido of Modena is restored to his bishopric.

November, 966 News of Otto's arrival in Italy prompt an imperial counter-coup in Rome led by John XIII's father, John I Crescentius, who takes control of Castle Sant'Angelo, disposes of Count Gottfried of Campagna and the vestararius Stephen, and takes control of the government of the city. Pope John XIII, then in Sabina, is called back to Rome.

December, 966 Emperor Otto I enters Rome and decides to assert his authority once and for all. The bodies of Gottfried of Campagna and the vestariarus Stephen are mutilated. The twelve decarcones are hung. Prefect Peter is hung from the statue of Marcus Aurelius by his hair, then flogged around the city on a donkey with a tail of wineskins filled with feathers, before being exiled to Germany. Numerous other nobles are blinded or exiled to Germany, smaller fry are put through the sword.

966 King Lothair II of France marries Otto I of Germany's stepdaughter, Emma of Italy (daughter of Emperor Otto I's wife, queen Adelaide of Burgundy; Emma stems from her first marriage to Lothair II of Italy).

967

January, 967 Synod of Rome convened by Emperor Otto I and Pope John XIII to present the new government of Rome. Significantly, Pandulf I Ironhead of Capua-Benevento is invited. Not much is known about what happened here. Presumably, Otto asserts his rights in the city, perhaps beyond the 962 treaty & oaths. Otto now insists on the occasional presence of an imperial judge alongside papal ones (albeit he stops short of instituting a permanent judge). The era of Roman independence is over. It is apparently here that Pope John XII raises the Archbishopric of Capua, the metropolitan status given in personal gratitude by the Pope to Pandulf I.

February, 967 Benevento + Spoleto Otto I goes on a tour of the Lombard duchies of southern Italy. He first stops by Capua. In reward for his services to himself and Pope John XIII (and hoping for help against the Byzantines in southern Italy), Emperor Otto invests Pandulf I of Capua-Beneveto as Duke Pandulf I ("Ironhead") of Spoleto-Camerino. Otto then proceeds to Benevento, to receive the homage of Pandulf I's brother and co-ruler, Landulf III of Benevento-Capua and then to Salerno, to receive the homage of Gisulf I of Salerno.

Otto then returns to Rome, picks up John XIII and goes to Ravenna to celebrate Easter..

April, 967 Synod of Ravenna convened by Emperor Otto I, at which attends King Conrad of Burgundy and much of the German and Italian nobility, and the archbishops of Aquileia, Ravenna and Milan (in that order of precedence) and other bishops of the area. Issues of Church discipline are discussed. It is here that the restoration of the lands of Ravenna to the Papal States is supposedly discussed, (specifically mentioned are the counties of Ravenna and Comacchio, but not Ferrara), although the result of the deliberations is ambiguous.

Also agreed here is the elevation of Magdeburg to metropolitan status, to oversee the bishoprics set up among the Slavs (Brandenburg, Merseburg, Meissen, Zeitz). a pet project of Otto's to bring the east under his subjection.

Spring, 967 Arrival at Ravenna of an embassy from Byzantine co-Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas, possibly in an effort to enlist German help against the Arabs or figure out Otto's intentions with regard to the southern Lombard duchies. Otto dispatches an imperial ambassador (a certain Venetian named Domenico), to Constantinople with assurances of Otto's friendship and a request for the Byzantine princess Theophano (a daughter of the late Emperor Romanus II) for his son, Otto II. As dowry, he demands the Byzantine holdings in Italy. Anticipating a positive response, he sends word for his son to come down to Italy. Otto I then proceeds to Tuscany.

Summer, 967 Ambassador Domenico arrives in Macedonia, but goes nowhere with Nicephorus Phocas. Far from offering Byzantine Italy as dowry for Princess Theophano, Nicephorus demands instead that Otto I relinquish his claims of suzerainity over the Lombard duchies. Notwithstanding this, he assures Otto his friendship.

September, 967 Otto I departs from Tuscany back to Ravenna and then onto Verona to meet his son Otto II.

October, 967 Assembly at Verona presided by both Otto I & Otto II. It is here that it is decided the duel may substitute the oath for the certification of documents.

November, 967 The Ottos proceed from Verona, via Mantua, back to Ravenna, where they are met by Giovanni Contarini, an ambassador sent by Pietro Candiano IV. Otto I renews the imperial treaty with Venice, confirming commercial privileges and protection of Venetian citizens on the mainland. Also secures a guarantee of the mainland possessions of Venetian bishops.

December, 967 Otto II accompanies his father Otto I back to Rome. On Christmas day, Pope John XIII crowns the young Otto as co-Emperor Otto II.

967 Count Arnulf II the Young of Flanders marries Rozala of Ivrea (a.k.a. Susanna), daughter of Berengar II of Ivrea.



968

968 Death of Landulf III of Benevento-Capua. Pandulf I Ironhead of Capua-Benevento & Spoleto-Camerino takes over the entire territory and associates his own son, Landulf IV, as co-prince in in Benevento. His disinherited nephew, the future Pandulf III (Landulf III's son) is palmed off as Lord of Sant'Agata.

January, 968 German-Byzantine War. Upset at the reply to his envoy, Emperor Otto I proceeds to Capua to confer with Pandulf Ironhead. He is met there by ambassadors of Nicephorus II Phocas, who again reiterate their friendship but refuse to consent to his dowry demands. Upset, Otto I decides to press ahead with a show of force and invades the Byzantine Theme of Langobardia. With the assistance of Benevento-Capua and naval support from Pisa, Otto I attempts to take Bari by assault, but Byzantine resistance is stiff and Otto I withdraws back to Ravenna.

Spring, 968 Despite his aggression at Bari, Otto I dispatches Liutprand of Cremona as ambassador to Nicephorus II Phocas, reiterating his request for the lands in dowry. He has no success. Worse yet, recounting how Otto I had bravely dealt with Rome, Liutprand unwittingly persuades Nicephorus to label Otto I an usurper and demand he quit Rome as well. But needing time to prepare his army, Nicephorus uses artifices to delay Liutprand in Constantinople.

968 Fighting on behalf of Byzantium, Prince Sviatoslav of Kiev defeats the Bulgars, drawing the Kievan Rus towards the Danube and into the Balkans.

October, 968 Sensing that Liutprand's delay is an ill-omen,
learning of the arrival of Byzantine reinforcements in the south and that the Greeks had negotiated a truce & alliance with the Sicilian Arabs and, most worryingly, hearing the odd rumors that Adalbert II had entered into a pact with Byzantium and recruited his brother Conrad of Ivrea to lead 8,000 men against him, Emperor Otto I decides to jump into action and give the Byzantine Emperor and the Ivreans a show of Saxon fury.

Fall, 968 From Ravenna, Otto I takes his army through Spoleto and invades Langobardia again along the coast, then through to Calabria. He proceeds slowly, sacking everything along the way for the next six months. However, he avoids the strongholds, into which the Byzantine forces have withdrawn.

968 'Mathildine Lands' begin. Death/deposition of Count-Bishop Guido of Modena. Emperor Otto I grants Adalbert Atto II (Alberto Azzo), castellan of Canossa, who had assisted the queen Adeilaide, as count of Modena, Reggio and Mantua. This forms the nucleus of the "Mathildine Lands" of the house of Canossa.

- Adalbert Atto II, Lord of Canossa, Count of Modena, Reggio and Mantua.

969

Spring, 969 Otto I reaches Cassano (where he spends Easter; or is that Canosa, near Barletta?).Advancing no further, Otto I abruptly returns to Rome, leaving a detachment along the way to lay siege to Bovino, a fortress-city in northern Apulia ('Capitanata').

May, 969 Synod of Rome convened by Pope John XIII. Like Capua the previous year, Pope John XIII raises the bishopric of Benevento to Archbishopic of Benevento, but this time with a political objective. Benevento is made metropolitan see over some ten bishoprics in Byzantine Capitanata (Bovino, Ascoli, etc.), thus, reinforcing Pandulf Ironhead's authority to lead the effort to recover them.

969 Fatimid Egypt Fatimid Caliph al-Mu'tizz dispatches an army under the Mameluke Jawhar to invade Egypt. The capital - and center of gravity - of the Fatimid Caliphate will be transferred from Ifriqiya to Egypt and the new Fatimid capital, Cairo. Fatimids will continue venturing eastwards into Palestine and Syria and vassalize Mecca and Medina. Their western dominions will be left in the hands of local hereditary dynasties as Fatimid vassals - the Kalbids in Sicily and the Zirids in Ifriqiya.

Summer, 969 Pandulf I takes the Capuan-Beneventine militia to assist the German siege of Bovino, but he is defeated at the Battle of Bovino by the Byzantine patricius Eugenius. Pandulf is captured and taken in chains to Bari and then onto Constantinople.

With mighty Pandulf out of the way, the Byzantines and their allies go on the offensive. But the Ivrean pretender Adalbert II, then in exile in Autun, Burgundy, does not join them. Byzantine forces under Eugenius and Neapolitan forces under Marino III of Naples invade Benevento-Capua, capture Avelino and then lay siege to Capua. Eugenius takes a detachment to Salerno, where he is received warmly by Prince Gisulf I of Salerno. He then proceeds north to Bari to make preparations for a final offensive.

August, 969 At Pavia, Otto I receives the news of Pandulf's defeat and the Byzantine offensive. He assembles a large German army, joined by the Spoletan levies. It is led by the Marquis Gunterius.

The imperial army counter-attacks, swiftly recovering the lost territory. They relieve Capua, devastate the area around Naples, recover Avelino, enter Benevento (where they are received by an overjoyed Landulf IV) and proceed on to Ascoli. At the Battle of Ascoli, the Germans trounce the Greek (now led by patricius Abdila). Ascoli and other areas of northern Apulia fall to the German forces.

December, 969 Co-emperor Nicephorus II Phocas is murdered by his relative, the Armenian John Tzimisces (brother-in-law of former Emperor Romanus II), who is duly appointed as co-emperor John I ("Tzimisces") of Byzantium, on behalf of his nephew, Basil II of Byzantium. He continues the Byzantine invasion of Syria and the war against Otto in Italy.

969 Doge Pietro Candiano IV appoints his son as Patriarch Vitale of Grado, to the great annoyance of the Venetians.

969 Partition of Aleramic March Death of Aleram I, founder of the Aleramic March of Western Liguria (Montferrat, Acqui, Savona, etc.). His march is partitioned between his two sons: the northern half is invested in Marquis Otto I of Montferrat, the southern half in Marquis Anselm of Savona.

970

January, 970 After an absence of nearly 19 months, Otto I's ambassador, Liutprand of Cremona, finally returns from Constantinople.
Spring, 970 Hoping to profit from the death of Nicephorus II, Emperor Otto I descends from Pavia himself at the head of a large army. He plunders the south and lays siege to Bovino again. But the stiff resistance makes him realize that he cannot exactly to deliver a death blow just yet.

Summer, 970 Byzantine-Imperial truce mediated by Pandulf I of Capua-Benevento-Spoleto, who, for the purpose, was released from captivity in Constantinople by John I Tzimisces of Byzantium and dispatched to Bari, where he meets Otto I. Negotiations for a more permanent peace begin.

Fall, 970 Otto I withdraws from Apulia amd returns to Rome (where he celebrates Christmas).

970 Crescenzi Spoils Pope John XIII goes on a spending spree, distributing benefices to further flung members of the house of Crescenzi. To his sister, the Senatrix Stefania, he grants the town of Palestrina for life. To his nephew, Count Benedict II of Sabina (son of Stefania and the (late?) Count Benedict I of Sabina), he grants the rectorate of Sabina.

970 - Mecca and Medina place themselves under the rule of the Fatimids.

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]




971

971 Byzantines expel the Russians from the Balkans.


971 - Fatimid Egypt - With the Kalbids in control of Sicily and North African dominions (Ifriqiya) are invested in the Zirid dynasty.

Spring, 971 Leaving Rome, Otto I arrives in Ravenna, where he makes an assembly to deal with some stuff, much of it related to the Byzantine-Imperial negotiations. Otto I also dispatches his ambassadors to Constantinople around now -- which include Liutprand of Cremona again (his last mission; Liutprand will die in Greece).

June, 971 Death of Adalbert II, scion of the House of Ivrea, former king of Italy, son of Berengar II of Ivrea, in exile in Autun, Burgundy. His son, Otto William, will build a life for himself there, raising the line of Free Counts of Burgundy ('Franche Comte'). But Adalbert II's brother, Conrad submits to Emperor Otto I and, as a result, is formally invested as Marquis Conrad ('Cono') of Ivrea.

971 Otto I appoints his royal secretary Willigis (future Archbishop of Mainz) as 'archchancellor of Germany', a position that Archbishops of Mainz will continue to hold for centuries.

972

972 Crisis of Kiev Succession. Prince Sviatoslav of Kiev is slain by Pechenegs. His three sons, Vladimir, Yaroplok and Oleg, vie for the Kievan throne.

April, 972 Tzimiscian Peace As per the negotiations between Holy Roman Emperor Otto I and Byzantine co-Emperor John I Tzimisces, the princess Theophano of Byzantium (daughter of late Emperor Romanus II, sister of the young emperor Basil II the Bulgarslayer) arrives in Rome, accompanied by an imperial entourage headed by Archbishop Gero of Cologne. She is married to Otto I's son, the co-Emperor Otto II, at a ceremony in April and crowned empress by Pope John XIII.

- Marriage of Otto II and Theophana

Otto I achieves nothing with this marriage, other than a final peace and the recognition of his title of "Emperor". His long, bloody attempt to receive the Byzantine lands in Italy as dowry come to naught. Benevento and Capua remain under western suzerainity, while Apulia, Calabria, the enclaves of Naples and Amalfi and, more troubling, the Principality of Salerno, remain under the eastern suzerainity.

August, 972 Tired of his fruitless, long, five-year adventure in Italy, a disappointed Emperor Otto I finally returns to Germany. He has just barely crossed the Alps, when news of another papal crisis hits.

September, 972 Death of Pope John XIII. The nationalist party puts forward a certain Franco, but the imperial party pushes the old Cardinal Deacon Benedict, (the same one who presided over the deposition of John XII). who is elected as Pope Benedict VI. But the choice displeases the Crescenzi family, relatives of the former pope and the new power-brokers in Rome. Ben VI's consecration will have to wait until January of next year, given the delays of Otto I.

- Cardinal-Deacon Benedict, Pope Benedict VII.

Summer, 972 Campaign against Fraxinet Crossing the St. Bernard's pass over the Alps, the Abbot St, Mayeuil of Cluny is captured by the Arabs of Fraxinet and released after paying a large ransom. The assault on the prominent cleric, famous throughout Europe, raises the indignation of the princes of Europe. Animated by the spirit of holy war, the brothers, Counts William I and Rotbald II of Provence and Marquis Arduin of Turin, throw themselves against the Saracens. In a campaign lasting until the next year, they expel the Fraxinet Arabs from their advanced positions in the western Alps, Piedmont and Liguria, confining them to the strip around Fraxinet.

972 Grand Prince Geza of the Magyars converts to Christianity.



973

May, 973 Death of Emperor Otto I ("the Great"). He is succeeded by his eighteen-year old son as Emperor Otto II.

- Otto II, King of Germany and the Lombards, Emperor.

Henry's Quarrel. Death of aged Burchard II of Swabia, leaving a young bride, Ludwiga/Hedwig, that had been recently strategically married by her mother, regent-duchess Judith of Bavaria. But the young Otto II invests his nephew Otto (son of the dispossessed Liudolf) as Duke Otto I of Swabia. Infuriated, Judith presses her son, Henry the Quarrelsome of Bavaria, to revolt, believing he should inherit that duchy. Abraham of Friesing, Boleslav II of Bohemia and Miesislav I of Poland support Henry's revolt.

973 Death of Hermann Billung of Saxony. His dominions pass to his son, Duke Bernhard I of Saxony.

973 Salerno Coup With the help of Manso III of Amalfi and Marino of Naples, the Count Landulf of Conza (son of former Atenulf III Carinola of Capua, who was expelled c.943 and married a Salernan princess) undertakes a coup and deposes Gisulf I of Salerno and declares himself Prince Landulf I ("Conza") of Salerno. As Landulf of Conza takes on a definitely anti-German line, he incites the opposition of his cousin, Pandulf Ironhead of Benevento-Spoleto.

974

July, 974 Crescenzi Coup With Otto I dead and Otto II busy with Henry's Quarrel, the Crescenzi faction, now led by Crescentius I ("de Theodora", "the Elder"), Count of Terracina and brother of the former Pope John XIII, has the new pro-imperial Pope Benedict VI deposed and confined in Castel Sant' Angel, where he is strangled to death. Crescentius engineers an election and replaces him with his own candidate Franco (from the 972 election), who ascends under the title of anti-Pope Boniface VII.

October, 974 Tusculan Coup Emperor Otto II, aware of happenings in Rome, orders the imperial missus Sicco into action. Sicco intrigues with the Tusculan branch of the House of Theophylact, (the Counts of Tusculum are descended directly from Marozia and Alberic of Rome; the rival Crescenzi are descendents of Theodora II, Marozia's sister). The Tusculan counter-coup succeeds. The Crescenzi-backed anti-Pope Boniface VII flees to Constantinople with much of the papal treasury. The Tusculans impose one of their own, the aristocratic Bishop Benedict of Sutri, as Pope Benedict VII.

- Benedetto dei Conti di Tuscolo, Bishop of Sutri, Pope Benedict VII

974 Taking the opportunity of the Bavarian crisis, Harold I Bluetooth of Denmark revolts and attacks Germany, hoping to shake off imperial overlordship. But the Danes are swiftly dominated by Otto II's armies by the end of the year.

974 Pandulf Ironhead of Benevento invades Salerno, deposes his cousin and restores Gisulf I to the throne of Salerno. In gratitude, Gisulf I appoints Pandulf Ironhead's younger son (& namesake), Pandulf II, as his co-ruler & heir in Salerno.

975

March, 975 Otto II appoints his German chancellor Willigis as Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, while Benedict VII makes his Mainz seat the primate of Germany (to Cologne's displeasure).

Willigis of Mainz

Fall, 975 With Denmark subdued, Otto II leads a punitive expedition against Bolselav II of Bohemia.

975 Death of Otbert I Obizzo, lord of the Obertenghi March, Marquis of Milan and count-palatine of Italy. He is succeeded by his sons as Marquises Adalbert II and Otbert II in the Obertenghi March. Giselbert II of Bergamo succeeds as Count-Palatine of Italy.

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]

976

May, 976 Emir Abu al-Qasim of Sicily recovers Messina from the Byzantines and Pisans. He then chases them across the straits and through Calabria all the way to Consenza and Cellere, where he imposes a tribute on the cities. In the meantime, his brother, at the head of a Sicilian fleet, assaults the Apulian coast and raids the Gravino region.

July, 976 Grand Duchy of Carinthia Otto II occupies Regensburg, forcing his rebellious cousin, Henry II of Bavaria to flees to Bohemia. Henry is deposed and Bavaria is handed over to Otto I of Swabia. But Otto also makes great deductions of the Bavarian territory, lopping off the south and east and setting up the the new "Grand Duchy of Carinthia" covering the an extensive march-complex, that is invested in the son of a former Bavarian duke, who ascends as Grand Duke Henry I ('the Younger') of Carinthia.

- Grand Duchy of Carinthia, 976

The Grand Duchy of Carinthia includes the Duchy of Carinthia proper plus the marches of Verona, Friuli, Istria, Carniola, Styria, Carantania, etc.

Also deducted as separate entities is the March of Nordgau (in northern Bavaria) and the March of Austria (East March), which is invested in Leopold Babenberg (a son of Arnulf the Bad) thereby beginning a long line of Babenberg margraves of Austria.

Otto II also tries to resolve a crisis in Lower Lorraine. Empty since 972, the Emperor invests the Duchy of Lower Lorraine in the French prince Charles. But Otto II's mother, Adelaide of Burgundy, demands that Lower Lorraine be carried as a dowry by her daughter Emma of Italy's marriage to King Lothair II of France himself. But Otto II's own wife, Theophato, supports Charles of Lower Lorraine.

Summer, 976 The powerful Doge Pietro Candiano IV demands Venetian assistance to put down a revolt in his personal fiefs around Ferrara. This is the straw the break's the camel's back. Angered, the Venetians revolt against Candiano IV too and assault the doge's palace. Repelled by the mercenary forces from the mainland, they torch the neighborhood, bringing the palace down with it. As Pietro and his family escape the flames, they are jumped upon and killed by the mob. However, Dogaressa Waldrada of Tuscany manages to escape and flees to her brother's domains in Tuscany and then on to the court of Otto II.

Election of Doge Pietro Orseolo I of Venice (the only Venetian doge canonized as a saint). The damage so great, he rules the republic from his private home and imposes a tithe on Venetians to pay for the rebuilding of downtown Venice and pay off Waldrada of Tuscany for her lost dowry.

August, 976 Otto II leads a punitive expedition against Boleslav II of Bohemia, for having sheltered Henry of Bavaria.

976 Death of John Tzimices. After being dominated by relatives, Byzantine Emperor Basil II ("Bulgaroctonus", "Bulgar-slayer") assumes power. He appoints his brother as co-emperor Constantine VIII.

Byzantine Emperor Basil II, the 'Bulgarslayer'.

977

977 War of the Three Henries The new duke Henry I the Younger of Carinthia gets involved in a conflict over the Patriarchate of Aquileia. Otto II decides in Aquileia's favor, prompting Henry the Younger to go into revolt and join forces with the rebel Henry II of Bavaria. They are both joined by the Bishop Henry of Augsburg.

Duke Henry II the Quarrelsome of Bavaria
Otto I of Swabia-Bavaria

Otto II's launches a new expedition against Bohemia, hoping to root out the rebellious Henry II of Bavaria & his new confederates.

Kalbid prince Abu al-Qasim of Sicily raids mainland Italy, occupying Sant' Agata in Reggio, Gallipoli and Otranto and razing Oria, Bovino and certain quarters of Taranto, before returning home laden with booty.




978

Pandulf's Empire. Death of Gisulf I of Salerno. As previously arranged, Pandulf I Ironhead's younger son, Pandulf II, ascends as Prince Pandulf II of Salerno, who immediately associates his father with the throne. With this, Salerno is annexed into Pandulf Ironhead's domains. For the first time, the Lombard duchies of Benevento, Capua, Salerno and Spoleto-Camerino are united under one ruler. This emergence of this massive & pro-German Lombard state causes serious concern to its neighbors.

c. June, 978 Henry II of Bavaria surrenders and is taken to Utrecht, where he will be kept in house arrest under the watchful eye of Bishop Folkmar of Utrecht.

For his part in the revolt, Otto II deposes Henry I the Younger of Carinthia and passes over the domains to his brother-in-law, Otto of Worms (Count of Nahegau, son of Salian Duke Conrad the Red of Lorraine), who thereby ascends as Duke Otto I ("Worms") of Carinthia.

June, 978 War of Lorraine Succession. No sooner is the Bavarian-Carinthian crisis settled that a war breaks out between France and Germany over the succession to Lower Lorraine. Lothair II surprises the Emperor by taking his army of nearly 20,000 against Aachen, where Otto II was staying. Otto II flees to Dortmund to prepare a response. Otto II breaks with his mother, Adelaide of Burgundy, who had encouraged Lothair II.

September, 978 Urged by the French abbott Guarainus, under the cover of darkness, Doge Pietro Orseole I escapes from Venice and makes his way to the Benedictine Abbey of St. Michael of Cuxa (in the Pyrenees), there to live out the remainder of his life. Election of the elderly Vitale Candiano (not the bishop of Grado) as doge of Venice.

September, 978 Otto II counter-invades France, captures Reims, Soissons and lays siege to Paris. But plague and the onset of winter force Otto II to lift the siege in November and withdraw back to Germany. Lothair II gives chase and mauls the German rearguard.

978 - Willa of Tuscany, widow of Hubert of Tuscany and mother of Hugh the Great, founds the Badia Fiorentina (Abbey of Florence) in her late husband's memory. The abbey will give Florence, a near-deserted village at this point, a critical injection of life. In the follow-up, Hugh the Great of Tuscany will spend long sojourns with his ducal court in Florence, thereby raising its status further. But it will take quite some time before Florence can challenge Lucca (still the formal ducal capital) and Pisa (the super maritime city-state).

Badia Fiorentina

979

979 Like his predecessor, Doge Vitale Candiano of Venice quits and joins a monastery. Election of his kinsman as Doge Tribuno Memno of Venice, son-in-law of the murdered Pietro Candiano IV. However, his first act is conciliatory, declaring a general amnesty for everyone complicit in that plot. But factionalism remains, as pro-ByzantineMorosini faction draws against the pro-German Coloprini faction.

- Tribuno Memno

September, 979 - Milanese Uprising Death of Archbishop Gottfried. At Otto II's appointment, he is succeeded in December by Archbishop Landulf 'da Carcano' of Milan, a son of a prominent family of Milanese nobles (his father, Ambrogio da Carcano, is said to have governed Milan under Otto I). But once in power, the Carcano clan immediately start imposing their autocratic rule on the city. A popular uprising forces Landulf into exile with his brothers. In the melee, their elderly father, Ambrogio, is murdered by a girl-servant.

980

May, 980 Peace of Margut-sur-Chiers between Lothair II of France and Otto II of Germany. Lothair II renounces his claims on Lower Lorraine in favor of his brother, Charles of Lower Lorraine, while Otto II promises to recognize the designation of Lothair's son, Prince Louis, as heir to the French throne.

October, 980 Otto II's First Expedition to Italy With the distractions in Bavaria and Lower Lorraine settled, Emperor Otto II sets off on his first expedition to Italy. He leaves the government of Germany in the hands of the archchancellor Willigisus and Duke Bernard of Saxony, with the assistance of the archbishops of Salzburg, Hamburg, Magdeburg, Cologne and Trier. Otto II sets off to Italy accompanied by his wife Theofato and his infant son, the future Otto III. Accompanying him are Otto of Bavaria, the bishops of Worms, Metz and Merseburg and numerous counts.

November, 980 Arriving in Pavia, Otto II finally meets and reconciles with Adelaide of Burgundy, his mother (estranged since the quarrel over Lower Lorraine). He proceeds to spend Christmas in Ravenna. He is met there by Pope Benedict VII, who proceeds to lay out the conditions of his trip to Rome.

- Reconciliation at Pavia of Otto II and Adelaide of Burgundy (painting f.1858).

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]


981

March, 981 Emperor Otto II arrives in Rome, accompanied by may of his great lords. He is received by Pope Benedict VII. Immediately begins making plans to hurry south and employ the aggrandized Lombard ruler Pandulf I Ironhead to deliver the death-blow to Byzantine Italy, which was then rattled by Sicilian raids and local uprisings in Bari, Ascoli and Trani.

But that very month sees the untimely death of Pandulf Ironhead of Capua-Benevento-Spoleto-Camerino-Salerno, putting a serious wrench in Otto II's plans to take Byzantine Italy. His elder son and co-ruler, Landulf IV, takes over most of the domains save for Salerno, which continues in his younger brother, Pandulf II.

September, 981 Despite the protests of the Byzantine strategos, Emperor Otto II departs from Rome and invades Apulia, under the pretext of expelling the Sicilian Arabs.

As Otto II ravages Apulia, there is a concerted attack by the Byzantine-allied Manso III of Amalfi invades Salerno and deposes Pandulf II, seizing the principality for himself. Simultaneously, Pandulf of Sant'Agata (son of former Count Landulf III of Benevento-Capua) expels his cousin Landulf IV from Benevento and proclaims himself Prince Pandulf III ("Sant' Agata") of Benevento. Landulf IV manages to hold on to Capua and Spoleto-Camerino. After a century of union, Benevento is split from Capua again.

October, 981 Emperor Otto II retreats from Lucera to deal with the coups in the Lombard duchies. He passes by Benevento, but is unable to do much there. He proceeds to lay siege to Salerno, but to no avail.

981 Theodald and Gottfried of Canossa, sons of Adalbert Atto and the Supponid princess Hildegard of Brescia are invested as Count Theodald of Brescia and Bishop Gottfried of Brescia respectively.

982

January, 982 Forced to recognize the fait accompli, Otto II ratifies the usurpation of Benevento by Pandulf III Sant' Agata and the conquest of Salerno by Manso III of Amalfi and proceeds back into Apulia. However, facing unexpectedly stiff resistance on his route, Otto II's advance is slow.

March, 982 Otto II takes Taranto. Otto II orders the assembly of a greater army before proceeding.

May, 982 Emperor Otto II's new, large imperial army assembles at Taranto and proceeds along the gulf coast towards Calabria. In the meantime, Sicilian Emir Abu al-Qasim has landed his own army and proceeds along the eastern coast of Calabria.

June, 982 The German and Sicilian armies encounter each other in the environs of Rossano. Having appraised the superior strength of the imperial army, al-Kasim decides not to give battle and orders a retreat instead. Otto II drops the imperial baggage train at Rossano and gives chase with the bulk of his army.

July, 982 Battle of Stilo (or Battle of Cape Colonne) Unable to escape the Germans, Abu al-Qasim is cornered by Emperor Otto II at Cape Colonne (south of Cotrone). After a brief clash, the German cavalry breaks through and heads straight to the Arab nucleus and strikes down Sicilian Emir Abu al-Qasim. But, despite the loss of their leader, the Arab army holds together, draws the Germans into a trap, encircling and mauling them.

It is a terrible defeat for Otto II. Landulf IV of Capua-Spoleto is killed, as is his brother Pandulf II, and their nephews Ingulf, Vodipert, and Guido of Sessa. Numerous German nobles and ecclesiastical lords perish, including the Bishop Henry I of Augsburg, the Abbot Werner of Fulda, Duke Otto of Swabia-Bavaria and numerous others, a veritable massacre of the flower of the German nobility! Many (such as the Bishop of Vercelli) fall prisoners in Arab hands. The remainder of the imperial army flees to Rossano.

Emperor Otto II flees from the scene of battle and, in the nick of time, jumps in the water and takes refuge aboard a passing Greek ship. Otto informs the captain who he is and the captain, overjoyed at his prize, sets sail to Constantinople, intending to collect a ransom. But Otto II persuades the captain to stop and pick up his baggage at Rossano. There the ship is met at the beach by Queen Theophano and Bishop Theodoric of Metz. The imperial treasury is strapped on a pair of mules and taken aboard by the bishop. But in the feint, the bishop and two German guards draw their swords on the crew. In the melee, Otto II breaks the grip of his captors, dives into the sea and swims to the shore to safety.

Assessing the situation, Otto II realizes the Saracen army is probably heading straight for the baggage train, and he immediately takes the remnant of his army and flees up to Capua, permitting all his conquests in Apulia and Calabria to be retaken by the Byzantines.

As it turns out, the Sicilian Arab army, now under al-Qasim's son, Emir Ja'far ibn Ali al-Kalbi of Sicily, decides not to give chase to the Germans at Rossano, fearing a larger enemy and a possible usurpation back home in Sicily. As such, he orders a retreat.

Aftermath: with the death of the Capuan counts Landulf IV and Pandulf II at Cape Colonne, Otto II invests a young son of Pandulf II (or a fourth son of Pandulf Ironhead?) as Prince Landenulf of Capua, under the regency of his mother Aloara. The now vacant thrown of Spoleto-Camerino is invested in Thrasimund IV of Spoleto.

982 Free County of Burgundy - Death of Gerberga of Macon, widow of Adalbert II of Italy and wife of the current Duke Otto-Henry of Burgundy. Her son Otto-William (from Adalbert II) inherits her title of Count of Macon and her domains around Dole (the "Franche-Comte"), and thus ascends as the first ('Free') Count Otto-William of Burgundy

983

January, 983 After an extended stay in Capua, Otto II's battered army arrives in Rome.

983 - Hoping to secure military support, the exiled Archbishop Landulf of Milan alienates the lands of the leading clergy of Milan and distributes them among the high nobles of the city as archiepiscopal fiefs. This forges the close alliance between the archbishop and the capitaniwe see in subsequent Milanese history.

May, 983 Diet of Verona assembled by Emperor Otto II. War is declared against Byzantium and Arab Sicily and preparations for a renewal of the invasion begin.

In light of the death of Otto I of Swabia-Bavaria,, the duchy of Swabia is invested in a certain Conrad, a relative of the old duke Hermann von Wettenau, brother of the count Otto who had fallen at Stilo, who now ascends as Duke Conrad I of Swabia, while Bavaria passes back to the local Scheyern dynasty in the person of the former Margrave Henry I the Young of Carinthia, who is now reconciled and ascends as Duke Henry III ("the Younger") of Bavaria. Otto of Worms continues in Carinthia.

Other business:

Confirmation of Hugh the Great as Marquis of Tuscany.

Deposition of Rodald of Aquileia (he will die the next year). Oddly, Archbishop John IV of Ravenna is ethroned as Patriarch of Aquileia, to which Otto II grants a bunch of castles (Buga (Buia), Groang (Girvago), Castrum Uteni (Udine), Braitan (Brazzacco) and f*gagna).

Preparing his succession, Otto II secures pre-election of Otto III, his three-year old son, as king of Germany and Italy at Verona. Otto III is dispatched to Aachen, accompanied by Archbishop John IV of Ravenna-Aquileia, for his German coronation. Otto II's mother Adelaide of Burgundy is appointed as Italian regent in Pavia.

June, 983 Coloprini Conspiracy While at Verona preparing his army, Otto II renews the usual treaty with the ambassadors of Doge Tribuno Memno of Venice and sets aside the claims of Waldrada of Tuscany, widow of the murdered Peter Candiano IV.. But, soon after, he is also approached by Stefano Coloprini, a member of the pro-German faction in Venice, then fleeing because of a murder of a one of the rival pro-Byzantine Morosoni faction. He offers to steer the imperial forces through the Venetian lagoon, in return for a return to imperial suzerainity and the use of the Venetian fleet against the Arabs of Calabria. Otto II accepts, reneges on the Venetian treaty and orders the blockade of Venice.

Margrave Otto of Worms of Carinthia cuts off all shipping from the marches of Verona, Istria and Friuli. Coloprini and his confederates are posted at strategic points. Panic-stricken, the Venetians fall upon the Coloprinis still within Venice and await the inevitable.

July, 983 The diet of Verona wrapped up and a new army prepared, Otto II proceeds south through Ravenna into Byzantine Apulia.

July, 983 Death of Pope Benedict VII. Otto II, then in Apulia, retreats hurriedly to Rome and secures the election of the imperial archchancellor, Bishop Peter of Pavia, as Pope John XIV.

Peter of Pavia, Archancellor of Lombardia, Pope John XIV

Summer, 983 Once again, King Harold I Bluetooth rebels against imperial overlordship. A Danish army, under his son Sven Forkbeard, invades Schleswig. Simultaneously, the Wends, a Slavic tribe subject to the Germans, renounce Christianity and go into revolt. They proceed to invade northern Germany, sacking Avelburg, Brandenburg and Hamburg.

Fall, 983
Salerno uprising against the Manso III of Amalfi-Salerno. The people of Salerno acclaim Giovanni Lamperto, descendent of the Dukes of Spoleto, as Prince John ("Lambert") of Salerno. He immediately associates his son as co-ruler Guy of Salerno.

December, 983 Death of twenty-eight year-old Emperor Otto II in Rome from fever (or rather, from the four drachms of aloes which he took to cure it). Succeeded by his three-year-old son (already pre-elected), who is crowned as King Otto III of Germany and Lombardia in Aachen at Christmas. The empire comes under the regency of Empress Theophano, who immediately excludes her mother-in-law, empress-dowager Adelaide of Burgundy, from court. In Germany, Otto III is placed under the tutelage of his father's cousin Henry the Quarrelsome, former duke of Bavaria (now in Utrecht under the vigilance of the bishop of that city).

December, 983 Death of Stefano Coloprini. Adelaide of Burgundy negotiates an end to the blockade of Venice. Amnesty is granted to the Coloprini exiles, who return to the city. However, years later, they will be set upon and killed by members of the Morosini faction.


984

June, 984 In his position as tutor of Otto III, Henry the Quarrelsome immediately strikes up an alliance with Lothar II of France and the Slavs. But the great lords of Germany and Italy balk at his ambition and force him to come to terms and surrender the boy to his mother & grandmother. In a conference at Rohr (Rara), the empresses Theophano and Adelaide receive the custody of Otto III from Henry the Quarrelsome. He demands restoration to Bavaria as compensation.

- Empress Theophano

May, 984 The Crenscenzi party of Rome deposes and kills the imperialist Pope John XIV (he will die -- of hunger or murdered -- in captivity in August). Arriving from exile in Constantinople, the former Crescenzi-backed Pope Boniface VII is restored (he had been deposed by Otto II back in 974).

Death of Crescenzius de Theodora, Count of Terracina and patrician of Rome. His son, John I 'de Crescenzi' takes over the leadership of the Crescenzi faction.

984 The county of Ferrara (all the way to the Po delta) is acquired by Theodald of Brescia (son of Adalbert Atto of Canossa). It is also around this time that Adalbert Atto is referred to by the title of 'Marquis of Canossa', reflecting the large domains he and his family now hold.

985

July, 985 After a year of violent rule, Pope Boniface VII is murdered and his body dragged through the streets and hung to rot from the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. With the approval of the Crescenzi, the scholarly John of Gallina Alba is elected as Pope John XV.



July, 985 Diet of Frankfurt. Reconciliation of Empresses Theophano and Adelaide, on behalf of the young king Otto III, and Henry the Quarrelsome. Bavaria is restored to Henry II ("the Quarrelsome") of Bavaria. As a result, the current Liutpoldinger duke Henry III ("the Younger") is compensated by being restored to Carinthia, his old lands. The sitting Carinthian duke Otto of Worms is compensated with domains in the area of Worms.

Empress-dowager Adelaide of Burgundy returns to Pavia, leaving Theophano in control of affairs in Germany, with the help of Archbishops Willigus of Mainz and Hildebold of Worms. For the remainder of the year, Theophano, Otto III and Henry II of Bavaria go on tour through Germany, setting up their base at Cologne.

985 (usual date). Ruling prince Geza of the Magyars and his son Stephen are baptized into Christianity (some say by Bruno of St. Gallen, others by Adalbert of Prague) as part of a treaty with Otto. Geza wears his Christianity thin, but his son Stephen will be more earnest.

986

June, 986 Theophano, accompanied by young Otto III and Henry II of Bavaria, leads a campaign against Bohemia (where Boleslav II had been active again) and the Slavs on the Elbe frontier. Joining in the campaign, Christian King Mieszko I of Poland swears fealty to the Emperor.

986 Unable to defy the Crescenzi, Pope John XV acknowledges John I de Crescentius (son of Crescetius de Theodora) as "Patricius urbis Roma" (patrician of the city of Rome).

986 Renewing their efforts on mainland Italy, the Sicilian Saracens sack Gerace.

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]


June, 987 War of French Succession. Death of the young Louis V, the last Carolingian king of France, from a horse's kick. His uncle, Charles of Lower Lorraine, lays claim to the French throne. But being a vassal of the German Emperor Otto III, the nobles of France balk at the prospect of his ascension.

Instead, at the Assembly at Senlis, the French nobles turn to Hugh Capet, Count of Paris, who alone seems to have the connections and resources to defy the Emperor, and elect him as King Hugh I ('Capet') of France, thereby beginning the French Capetian dynasty.

Assembly at Senlis

But there are notable absences at Senlis, notably the Counts of Flanders and Troyes, who declare for Charles of Lower Lorraine. They call on the empress-regent Theophano of Germany for assistance. She leads an expedition to Lower Lorraine, to ensure it remains under German suzerainity.

987 Marquis Conrad of Ivrea grants Caresana to the Bishop of Vercelli. This will prompt a crisis between Ivrea and Vercelli, as the next marquis will seek to recover it.

987 Death of Lady Stephania II of Pellestrina, Senatrix of Rome, mother of Benedict II of Sabina and aunt of Roman Patrician John I de Crescentius.

987 Bishop Everard of Piacenza orders the construction of Castle Bardi, near Piacenza.

- Castle Bardi

988

February, 988 - Death of Adalbert Atto of Canossa, Count of Reggio and Modena. He is succeeded by his son, Theodald, already Count of Brescia (which apparently included Cremona, Parma and Piacenza) through his Supponid mother and lord of Ferrara. He ascends as Marquis Theodald of Canossa.

- Theodald of Canossa, Count of Brescia (981), Ferrara (984), Reggio, Modena (988) and Mantua (1006).

988 Death of the rebellious Arnulf II of Flanders. Ascension of his eight-year-old son as Count Baldwin IV ("the Bearded") of Flanders. To secure his domains, his mother, Rozala ('Susanna'), a daughter of Berengar II of Ivrea, marries Robert the Pious, son and co-ruler of King Hugh Capet of France (she will be repudiated soon after).

988 Continuing in Italy, the Sicilian Arabs sack Consenza (in Calabria) and the county of Bari (in Apulia).

Summer, 988 Diet of Meersberg Worried about affairs in Italy, the Empress Theophano prepares her first expedition to Italy. placing the government of Germany and Otto III in the hands of Bishop Willigus of Mainz. However, a sudden illness prevents her departure.

988 Death of John I de Crescentius. His brother Crescentius II ("de Nomentana") takes over as Count of Terracina and is recognized as "Senator of all Romans".

989

January, 989 Death of Archbishop Aldaberon of Rheims. A bastard son of Lothair II of France ascends as Archbishop Arnulf of Rheims. Although Arnulf has sworn fealty to Hugh Capet, he offers the city of Rheims to Charles of Lower Lorraine, who proceeds to occupy it. Hugh Capet, furious, demands that Pope John XV discipline the archbishop. But John XV, not wishing to defy Empress Theophano refuses.

October, 989 Theophano's Expedition to Italy After much delay, Theophano finally departs for Italy. She arrives in Rome in December, meeting Pope John XV. The Roman parties fall in line. Crescentius II de Nomentana offers his submission, in return for which she confirms his title as patricius of Rome.

Tuscany + Spoleto Settling other business, Thrasimund IV of Spoleto is replaced by a more reliable imperial prince, Hugh the Great of Tuscany, who is invested as Duke of Spoleto-Marquis of Camerino.

Death of Conrad ('Cono'), Marquis of Ivrea and former Marquis of Milan, ending the direct Anscarid line of Ivrean marquises. A relative from a junior Anscarid branch (the Counts of Pombia; although by other accounts, a son of Anscar II or a son of Conrad himself ), ascends as Marquis Arduin of Ivrea. He immediately attempts to lay claim on Caresana, granted by his predecessor to the Bishop of Vercelli.

Death of Ja'afar al-Kalbi. Ascension of Emir Yusuf al-Kalbi of Sicily, a cultured and tolerant ruler. With autonomy from the Fatimids all but complete, his reign represents the golden age of Kalbid Sicily.

Death of Henry I the Younger of Carinthia, without issue. Henry II of Bavaria inherits Carinthia, thereby re-attaching part of the Bavarian marches that had been removed in 976.

989 - Peace of God French bishops at the Synod of Charroux declares the first "Peace of God". This makes attacking and robbing defenseless peasants and unarmed clergy specifically prohibited. A feudal lord or knight who violates this is subject to excommunication. The peace is first subscribed to by the bishops of western France, but soon extended through much of Europe and further immunities added (e.g. 'widows and virgins', church buildings, farm animals, etc). The Peace movement is promoted assiduously by the Abbey of Cluny.

990

May, 990 After a brief stay at Ravenna, Theophano returns to Germany.

July, 990 Theophano orders yet another campaign against Bohemia.

990 Devastating earthquake rocks southern Italy.

990 Dagome iudex Christian King Mieszko I of grants Poland to the Holy See, and receives it in return as a papal fief.

991

991 - Death of the Aleramic Marquis Otto I of Montferrat. His son ascends as Marquis William I of Montferrat.

991 Death of Pietro Tribuno of Venice. Election of the thirty-year-old son of the former doge and now hermit St. Pietro Orseole I as Doge Pietro Orseole II of Venice. One of his first acts is to prohibit any further tribute payments to Narentine pirates for free-passage through the Adriatic.

- Pietro Orseole II

April, 991 Betrayed by the Archbishop of Laon, Hugh Capet captures Charles of Lower Lorraine. Charles will die the next year in captivity at the tower of Orleans. His son ascends as Duke Otto ("Carolingian") of Lower Lorraine. He is quickly acclaimed by remaining partisans as king of France.

June, 991 Death of Theophano, thirty-three year old Byzantine princess and German empress-dowager from an illness, at Nijmegen. The regency of the empire passes on to Otto III's grandmother, Adelaide of Burgundy (former queen of Lothair II of Italy and Otto I of Germany).

June, 991 Synod of Saint-Basle de Vergy Hugh Capet, having captured the rebellious Archbishop Arnulf of Rheims, decides against dispatching him to Rome for justice, but rather have him tried in a court of French bishops. Arnulf is deposed and replaced by Gerbert of Aurillac as Archbishop of Rheims. The session is notable for the invective speeches and condemnations of the Roman papacy, pronounced by the Bishop of Orleans.

Hearing of these events, Pope John XV appeals to the German regent, empress Adelaide, to intervene and punish the assembled bishops. But busy with Slavs and Bohemians, the Germans decline. John XV calls for a series of ecclesiastical councils in Francia and Lorraine, which duly condemns the deposition of Arnulf of Rheims. But these condemnations only reinforce the dependence of the Roman Pope on the martial arm of the empire.

991 Sicilian Arabs sack Taranto.

991 Death of Otto I of Montferrat. His son ascends as Marquis William II of Montferrat

991 Death of St. Mayeul. He is succeeded by Abbot Odilo of Cluny. Under his supervision, the 'Cluniac system' of federated abbeys will be developed and the 'Peace of God' movement extended.

- St. Odilo, Abbot of Cluny

[Khalid ibn Walid]

FEUDAL LOMBARDIA[/size]